LIBRARY 

OK  Till'. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


(VTKT 


Deceived 
Accessions 


JAN  1895        ..  ..  189    .. 
C74/ss  No.  ...<? 

H/2. 


PURE  ENGLISH; 


A   TREATISE  ON 

WORDS  AND  PHRASES,  OR  PRACTICAL  LESSONS 
IN  THE  USE  OF  LANGUAGE. 


BY 

FRED.  H.  HACKETT 

AND 

ERNEST  A.  GIRVIN. 


SAN  FRANCISCO: 
BANCROFT    &    CO. 

1884. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1884,  by 

FKED.  H.  HACKETT 

AND 
ERNEST    A.    GIRVIN, 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


Simplicity  is  beauty;  simplicity  is  power. — Halleck. 

The  only  impeccable  authors  are  those  that  never  wrote. — 
Hazlitt. 

A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver. 
— Solomon. 

Altogether  the  style"  of  a  writer  is  a  faithful  representative  of 
his  ideas. — Goethe. 

It  is  with  words  as  with  sunbeams,  the  more  they  are  con- 
densed the  deeper  they  burn. — Southey. 

If  a  gentleman  be  to  study  any  language,  it  ought  to  be  that 
of  his  own  country. — Locke. 

The  great  source  of  a  loose  style  is  the  injudicious  use  of 
synonymous  terms. — Blair. 

To  acquire  a  few  tongues  .^s  4,he  labor  of  a  few  years  ;  but  to 
be  eloquent  in  one  is  the  labor  x)fSi  life. — Anon. 

It  is  an  invariable  maxim  that  words  which  add  nothing  to 
the  sense  or  to  the  clearness  must  diminish  the  force  of  the  ex- 
pression.— Campbell. 

The  history  of  literature  abounds  with  examples  of  words 
used  almost  without  meaning  by  whole  classes  of  writers. — 
William  Mathews. 

The  misuse  of  words  in  this  literature  of  ungoverned  or 
ungovernable  sensibility  has  become  so  general  as  to  threaten 
the  validity  of  all  definitions. — E.  P.  Whipple. 

A  tendency  to  slang,  to  colloquial  inelegancies,  and  even 
vulgarities,  is  the  besetting  sin  against  which  we,  as  Americans, 
have  especially  to  guard  and  to  struggle. —  W.  D.  Whitney. 

Propriety  of  thought  and  propriety  of  diction  are  commonly 
found  together.  Obscurity  of  expression  generally  springs  from 
confusion  of  ideas. — Macaulay. 

The  curse  and  peril  of  language  in  our  day,  and  particularly  in 
this  country,  is  that  it  is  at  the  mercy  of  men  who,  instead  of  being 
content  to  use  it  well  according  to  their  honest  ignorance,  use  it 
ill  according  to  their  affected  knowledge. — Richard  Grant  White. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  abuse  to  which  the  English  language  is  so  gener- 
ally subjected  must  be  a  source  of  sincere  regret  to  all 
who  appreciate  its  beauties.  Ours  is  an  age  of  progress 
and  civilization,  and  it  ought  to  be  remembered  that 
language,  is  also  progressive,  and  entitled  to  serious 
consideration.  Great  changes  in  language  are  the  result 
sometimes  of  historical  convulsions.  The  very  same  word 
which  to  the  Greeks  meant  an  oak,  to  the  Romans  meant 
a  beech,  although  an  oak  never  yet  changed  into  a  beech. 

Instruction  is  the  leading  purpose  of  "Pure  English." 
While  not  a  dictionary,  a  grammar,  or  a  rhetoric,  it  aims 
to  combine  the  essential  elements  of  them  all,  and  to 
present  a  simple  and  practical  plan  for  the  study  and 
use  of  our  language.  It  has  been  the  motive  of  the 
authors  to  write  lessons,  not  essays ;  to  teach  rather  than 
to  entertain.  Special  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
cardinal  elements  of  style,  viz.:  clearness,  purity,  and 
conciseness.  The  additional  attributes  of  grace,  color, 
and  vividness,  while  not  neglected,  are  subordinated  to 
the  laws  of  language  more  closely  related  to  accuracy 
and  strength.  It  is  the  violation  of  these  laws  that 
leads  to  many  of  the  barbarisms,  solecisms,  etc.,  now 
so  current  among  all  classes.  A  careless  or  an  ignorant 
use  of  the  synonymous  words,  with  which  our  language 
is  well  supplied,  is  also  a  prolific  source  of  error.  We 
do  not  think  what  we  say,  or  else  we  do  not  say  what 
we  think. 


VI  INTRODUCTION. 

"They  are,"  says  Professor  Swinton,  defining  synonyms, 
"  such  as  bearing  general  and  generic  resemblances,  have 
yet  specific  differences,  and  a  color  and  contour  of  their 
own."  Like  views  were  held  also  by  the  brilliant  De 
Quincey,  who  writes :  "All  languages  tend  to  clear 
themselves  of  synonyms  as  intellectual  culture  advances, 
the  superfluous  words  being  taken  up  and  appropriated 
by  new  shades  and  combinations  of  thought  evolved  in 
the  progress  of  society." 

Synonymy  has  been  treated  in  a  manner  consistent 
with  its  importance,  and  it  is  believed  that  "  Pure 
English"  may  prove  to  be  of  especial  value  in  our 
public  schools.  The  text  books,  now  in  use,  deal  with 
the  character  and  genius  of  our  language  in  a  very  super- 
ficial and  unsatisfactory  way,  and  the  study  of  English 
is  too  often  neglected  for  that  of  Latin,  Greek,  French, 
German,  etc. 

Professor  Reed,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
says,  referring  to  our  usual  course  of  instruction:  "  But 
for  the  more  essential  acquirements  in  the  language 
nothing  is  done;  not  a  word  is  mentioned  about  the 
philosophy  of  construction ;  nothing  on  facility  of  ex- 
pression, forms  of  idiom,  formation  of  style,  accuracy  of 
expression,  etc."  "  The  maxims  contained  in  works  on 
composition  and  rhetoric,"  says  Herbert  Spencer,  "are 
presented  in  an  unorganized  form.  Standing  as  isolated 
dogmas — as  empirical  generalizations,  they  are  neither 
so  clearly  apprehended,  nor  so  much  respected,  as  they 
would  be  were  they  deduced  from  some  simple  first 
principle.  *  *  *  *  And  we  may  be  sure  that  a  com- 
prehension of  the  general  principles,  from  which  the  rules 
of  composition  result,  will  not  only  bring  them  home  to 
us  with  greater  force,  but  will  discover  to  us  other  rules 
of  like  origin." 


INTRODUCTION.  Vll 

Realizing  the  truth  of  these  principles;  remembering 
also  the  limited  time  which  readers  and  students  have  at 
their  disposal;  and  appreciating  the  value  of  intelligent 
condensation,  the  authors  have  striven  to  make  a  book 
that  shall  meet  these  requirements  and  be  adapted  to 
the  practical  needs  of  our  people.  The  latest  and  best 
authorities  have  been  freely  consulted  in  the  preparation 
of  "  Pure  English,"  but,  so  far  as  the  plan  is  concerned, 
it  is  original.  Its  authors  do  not  suppose  that  the  book 
is  literally  above  criticism — and  they  may  have  violated 
some  of  the  principles  which  it  contains — but  they  sub- 
mit it,  such  as  it  is,  with  a  willingness  that  it  be  judged 
solely  upon  its  merits.  It  may  be  added  that  a  tendency 
to  prolixity  and  bombasticism  is  what  prevents  many 
modern  orators  and  authors  from  speaking  and  writing 
with  propriety.  A  superfluity  of  words  is  offered  in 
atonement  for  a  paucity  of  ideas ;  but  the  style  that  is  to 
please  to-day  must  be  free  from  all  such  faults,  dense 
with  ideas,  full  of  color,  clear,  concise,  powerful  and  pure 

FRED.  H.  HACKETT, 
ERNEST  A.  GIRVIN. 

San  Francisco,  May,  1884. 


OF 

KI7ER3ITY 


CONTENTS. 


PAGES. 

VOCABULARY 1-76 

ECLECTIC  GRAMMAR 79-1 16 

Etymology 80—  87 

Syntax '. 87-93 

Common  Errors 93-!  16 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  RHETORIC 1 19-168 

Purity.  . 123-126 

Propriety    126-129 

Precision 129-130 

Clearness  or  Perspicuity 130-145 

Strength 145-149 

Harmony 1 50—1 5 1 

Unity I52-I53 

The  Logic  of  Style 153-163 

Versification  and  Poetry 163-166 

Punctuation  and  Capitals 166-168 

WORDS  AND  PHRASES 171-193 

Objectionable  and  Obsolete  Words 171-177 

Faulty  Phrases 177-183 

Words  of  Dual  Meaning 183-184 

Changes  in  the  Meaning  of  Words,  etc.  .  .  184-193 

INDEX 197-205 


ix 


VOCABULARY. 


xi 


VOCABULARY. 


The  class  of  so-called  synonymous  words,  correct  in 
themselves,  but  currently  misapplied  in  speaking  and 
writing,  in  many  cases  even  by  our  best  authors,  is 
comprised  under  the  head  of  "  Vocabulary."  The  list  is 
arranged  alphabetically,  and  the  difference  in  the  use 
and  meaning  of  the  words  contrasted,  carefully  illus- 
trated and  explained. 


Abash— Confound— Confuse. 

Abash  expresses  more  than  confound,  and  confound 
more  than  confuse.  Abash  has  reference  to  the  spirit 
that  is  abased  and  lowered ;  confound,  to  the  faculties 
which  are  benumbed  and  crippled ;  confuse  to  the  feelings 
which  are  deranged  and  perplexed.  Thus,  the  haughty 
man  is  abashed;  the  wicked  man  is  confounded,  and  the 
modest  man  is  confused. 

Abbreviate— Abridge. 

Both  of  these  words  mean  to  shorten.  To  abridge  is 
to  shorten  by  condensing  or  compressing ;  abbreviate,  by 
contracting  or  cutting  off.  A  word  is  abbreviated;  a 
book  is  abridged.  2 


2  VOCABULARY. 

Abhor— Detest. 

Abhor,  which  implies  a  strong  dislike,  should  not  be 
confounded  with  detest,  which  combines  with  such  dislike 
an  equally  strong  disapprobation. 

Ability— Capacity. 

Ability  is  the  power  of  action,  either  mental  or  physi- 
cal. Capacity  implies  the  power  of  holding  or  receiving. 
Ability  is  misused  in  the  following  sentence:  "Wealth  is 
useless  without  the  ability  of  enjoying  it."  Capacity  is 
likewise  misused  in  the  sense  of  ability ;  as,  "  He  has 
not  the  capacity  requisite  for  a  presiding  officer." 

Abominable— Detestable— Execrable. 

The  abominable  excites  aversion ;  the  detestable,  hatred 
and  revulsion ;  the  execrable,  horror  and  indignation. 

Above— Beyond,  etc. 

Above  is  often  incorrectly  used  for  beyond;  as,  "  It  is  a 
task  above  your  strength ;  "  also,  for  more  tJian;  as,  "  The 
distance  is  above  a  mile ;  "  also,  instead  of  foregoing;  as, 
"  It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  statement."  Says  Edward 
S.  Gould :  "  This  word  {above'}  is  a  preposition  when  it  is 
followed  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun ;  and  when  it  is  followed 
or  preceded  by  a  verb  or  a  participle,  it  is  an  adverb." 

Absolve— Acquit. 

Absolving  may  occasionally  be  applied  to  offenses 
against  the  laws  of  man,  but  oftener  to  offenses  against 
God ;  acquitting  applies  solely  to  offenses  against  man. 

Accord— Grant— Give. 

Accord  signifies  to  agree  or  be  in  harmony  with,  but 
is  often  misused  for  grant  or  give;  as,  "  The  reporter 
was  accorded  the  information  that  he  desired." 


VOCABULARY.  3 

Accent— Emphasis. 

Accent  is  the  stress  of  voice  laid  upon  certain  syllables 
in  a  word;  emphasis  the  stress  of  voice  upon  certain 
words  in  a  sentence.  Accent  respects  the  pronunciation 
of  words;  emphasis,  the  meaning  of  sentences. 

Accident— Casualty. 

Accidents  include  events  with  their  causes  and  conse- 
quences, and  may  be  the  result  of  carelessness.  Casual- 
ties, however,  are  independent  of  human  agency.  The 
upsetting  of  a  coach  is  usually  an  accident ;  earthquakes, 
tidal  waves,  etc.,  are  always  casualties. 

Accurate— Exact— Precise. 

These  words  rise  in  sense  one  upon  the  other,  exact 
meaning  more  than  accurate,  and  precise  a  greater  degree 
of  minuteness  than  either  accurate  or  exact.  A  time  or  a 
period  is  said  to  be  exact ;  an  opinion,  accurate ;  the  defi- 
nition of  a  word,  precise. 

Adapt— Dramatize. 

To  adapt  a  play  is  to  alter  its  construction  for  the  pur- 
pose of  suiting  the  taste  of  the  public  before  whom  it  is 
to  be  produced.  To  change  the  style  of  a  story  from  the 
narrative  into  the  dramatic,  so  as  to  make  it  suitable  for 
representation  upon  the  stage,  is  to  dramatize.  The  one 
process  is  termed  an  adaptation,  the  other,  a  dramati- 
zation. 

Adjacent— Adjoining1— Contiguous. 

The  difference  in  the  meaning  of  these  words  may  be 
thus  illustrated :  that  which  is  adjacent  may  be  separated 
altogether  by  the  intervention  of  a  third  object;  that 
which  is  adjoining  must  touch  ; "  that  which  is  contiguous 


4  VOCABULARY. 

must  touch  entirely  on  one  side.  Example :  Lands  are 
adjacent  to  a  house  or  a  town ;  fields  are  adjoining; 
houses  are  contiguous. 

Adj  eetive — Epithet. 

All  adjectives  are  epithets,  but  all  epithets  are  not  adject- 
ives. Epithet  is  a  rhetorical ;  adjective  a  grammatical  term. 

Adopt — Carry — Pass— Prevail. 

A  motion  made  in  any  parliamentary  body  is  carried^ 
or  prevails;  a  resolution  is  passed  or  adopted.  Hence  it 
is  wrong  to  say  the  resolution  was  carried',  or  the  motion 
adopted. 

Affable— Courteous. 

Affable,  now  commonly  used  as  a  synonym  for  courteous, 
in  its  strict  sense,  has  a  more  limited  significance.  It 
implies  a  sort  of  polite  condescension,  as  in  the  affability 
of  a  king  to  his  subjects,  or  of  a  general  to  his  soldiers. 
It  is  not  accordingly  correct  usage  for  us  to  talk  of  the 
affability  of  our  boot-blacks,  or  persons  who  are  socially 
below  us. 

After-Behind. 

After  respects  order;  behind,  position.  We  run  after 
a  man,  and  stand  behind  his  chair.  After  may  be  used 
either  in  a  figurative  or  literal  sense;  behind  in  a  literal 
sense  only. 

Aggravate— Irritate — Provoke. 

Aggravate,  which  means  merely  to  add  to  the  weight, 
to  make  worse,  etc.,  should  not  be  used  as  a  synonym 
for  irritate, provoke,  or  anger.  Injury  may  be  aggravated 
by  the  addition  of  an  insult,  but  we  are  irritated,  not 
aggravated,  by  disappointments  in  business,  etc.  The 
use  of  aggravate  in  the  sense  criticised  is  given  in  Web- 


VOCABULARY.  5 

ster  but  is  there  condemned  as  being   "of  questionable 
propriety." 

Air — Manner. 

^z'rlies  in  the  person;  manner  \s  restricted  to  action. 
A  man's  air  may  be  seen  at  a  glance,  whether  he  be  in 
motion  or  at  rest ;  but  his  manner  can  only  be  detected 
by  his  movements. 

Alacrity— Promptness. 

It  is  customary  to  misapply  these  words,  alacrity  sig- 
nifying a  cheerful  readiness,  a  sprightliness ;  promptness, 
quickness  of  decision  or  action.  Hence  it  is  absurd  to 
talk  of  a  criminal  ascending  the  scaffold  with  alacrity. 

All— Whole. 

All  refers  to  an  indefinite  number  or  quantity;  whole 
to  a  single  body  with  its  components.  "  The  wJwle 
Romans  believed  that  they  could  conquer  the  world," 
means  that  those  Romans  who  were  entire ;  who  had  not 
lost  a  leg,  or  an  arm,  etc.,  which  is  not  the  sense  that  is 
intended. 

Alone— Only. 

Alone  means  by  itself,  unaccompanied.  Only,  con- 
tracted from  onely,  denotes  unity.  The  following  ex- 
amples clearly  illustrate  the  difference  between  the  two 
words:  "John  is  an  only  child,"  that  is,  he  has  neither 
brother  nor  sister;  "The  child  is  alone, "  meaning  that  it 
is  left  by  itself,  although  it  may,  or  may  not,  have  a 
brother  or  a  sister.  "  Virtue  only  makes  us  happy,"  means 
that  nothing  else  except  virtue  can  do  it.  "  Virtue  alone 
makes  us  happy,"  signifies  that  virtue  in  itself,  and  unac- 
companied by  any  other  advantages,  will  suffice  to 
do  it. 


6  VOCABULARY. 

Allude— Refer. 

Allude  means  to  hint,  to  intimate,  to  suggest,  while  a 
direct  mention  is  implied  by  refer.  It  is  accordingly 
incorrect  to  say :  "  The  picture  alluded  to  in  the  adver- 
tisement has  been  recovered,"  when  it  is  meant  that  the 
picture  was  directly  mentioned  and  described,  not  hinted 
at  darkly. 

Also— Likewise. 

The  distinction  between  these  words  is  commonly 
ignored.  Likewise  denotes,  strictly,  in  like  manner,  im- 
plying some  connection  or  agreement  between  the  words 
it  unites,  and  thus  is  more  specific  than  also.  "  Edward 
Everett  was  an  orator,  Denis  Kearney  likewise!'  Here, 
unless  it  is  intended  to  class  together  the  oratorical 
abilities  of  Everett  and  Kearney,  also  should  be  substi- 
tuted for  likewise. 

Alternative— Course. 

Alternative  signifies  a  choice  between  two,  and  only 
two.  It  is  accordingly  a  palpable  contradiction  in  terms 
to  speak  of  "  The  several  alternatives  which  were  pre- 
sented," since  alternative  cannot  be  properly  applied  to 
more  than  two.  In  all  such  cases  the  correct  word  to  use 
is  course  or  courses.  Two  things  which  offer  a  choice  of 
one  only,  are  called  alternatives.  Alternation  is  similarly 
misused  for  succession  and  alternately  for  by  turns. 

Amateur— Novice. 

The  distinction  between  these  words  is  very  clear.  An 
amateur  is  a  person  who  cultivates  and  practices  any  art, 
science  or  pursuit  from  taste,  without  being  attached  to 
it  professionally.  A  novice,  on  the  contrary,  is  one  who 
is  new,  inexperienced,  and  unskilled  in  his  calling — a 
tyro,  a  beginner.  Thus  we  may  speak  of  a  professional 


VOCABULARY.  7 

actor  or  musician  as  a  novice,  but  not  as  an  amateur,  while 
in  artistic  skill  and  experience  the  professional  actor 
may  be  excelled  by  the  amateur. 

Among"— Between. 

These  prepositions  are  commonly  misapplied.  Be- 
tween refers  to  only  two  persons  or  things,  while  among 
has  reference  to  three  or  more,  and  usually  denotes  a 
mass  or  collection.  Hence  it  is  not  correct  usage  to  say: 
"It  may  be  the  custom  between  men,  but  it  is  very 
objectionable  in  women."  We  should  write,  "Between 
you  and  me;  "  "Among  the  nations  of  the  earth,"  etc. 

An— A. 

An  should  be  used  for  euphony  only.  It  may  be  used 
for  a  in  such  sentences  as :  "  Napoleon  was  an  heroic 
general,"  "  He  delivered  an  historical  address." 

And— To— Or. 

The  misuse  of  and  for  to  is  very  common  in  such  sen- 
tences as,  "  Come  and  see  me,"  "  Try  and  do  it,"  etc. 
And  is  also  used  occasionally  in  the  sense  of  or;  thus, 
"  It  is  clear  that  the  Latin  and  Greek  language  is  of  sec- 
ondary importance  to  the  English."  The  existence  of  a 
Greek  and  Latin  language  has  not  yet  been  recognized, 
but  there  is  a  Latin  language,  also  a  Greek  language. 

Anticipate — Expect. 

When  used  with  precision,  anticipate  means  to  take 
beforehand;  to  enjoy,  possess,  or  suffer  in  expectation; 
to  foretaste;  to  forestall.  It  is  accordingly  a  violation 
of  exactness  to  say,  "  I  do  not  anticipate  a  refusal ;" 
"  His  death  is  daily  anticipated"  etc.  The  preferable 
words  in  these  instances  are  expect  and  expected. 


8  VOCABULARV. 

Answer— Reply— Rejoinder— Response. 

We  answer  a  question;  reply  to  an  assertion;  make 
rejoinder  to  a  reply ;  resportd\o>  a  call. 

Appear — Seem. 

Things  appear  as  they  present  themselves  to  the  eye ; 
they  seem  as  they  are  represented  to  the  mind.  Things 
appear  good  or  bad,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  by  our 
senses,  and  seem  right  or  wrong,  as  we  may  determine  by 
reflection. 

Approach— Address. 

The  word  approach,  which  means  to  draw  near  to,  is 
sometimes  misused  for  address ;  as,  "  He  is  a  difficult 
man  to  approach" 

Appreciate— Rise. 

A  just  estimate  is  the  true  meaning  of  appreciate. 
Hence  it  is  correct  to  say :  "  I  appreciate  it."  The  word 
is  erroneously  used  in  the  sense  of  rise;  as,  "The  land 
will  appreciate  rapidly;"  that  is,  rise  or  increase  in  value. 

Apprehend— Comprehend— Think. 

To  receive  an  idea  into  the  mind  is  to  apprehend  it, 
while  fully  to  understand  it  is  to  comprehend  it.  Hence, 
we  may  apprehend  many  truths  which  we  do  not  compre- 
Jiend.  Apprehend  is  also  loosely  used  for  think ;  as,  "  I 
apprehend  that  it  will  rain." 

Apt— Likely— Liable. 

Critics  do  not  sanction  the  use  of  apt,  the  special  mean- 
ing of  which  is  quick,  prompt,  ready,  suitable,  in  the 
sense  of  likely  or  liable,  words  denoting  a  probability  or 
contingency;  as,  "He  is  apt  to  leave  town  to-day;" 
"  You  will  be  apt  to  take  cold."  Likely  should  be  substi- 


VOCABULARY.  9 

tuted  for  apt  in  the  first  example,  and  liable  or  likely  in 
the  second.  "  She  is  an  apt  pupil,"  illustrates  the  proper 
use  of  the  word. 

Artist— Artisan— Mechanic. 

Artists  practice  the  fine  arts;  artisans,  the  industrial 
arts;  mechanics^  the  mechanical  arts.  Mechanics  are  al- 
ways artisans ;  but  artisans  are  not  necessarily  mechanics. 

As— So— Like. 

Following  is  an  example  of  the  incorrect  use  of  the 
adverb  as  in  the  sense  of  so:  "You  are  not  as  smart  as 
I."  In  the  sentence,  "  It  may  be  satisfactory  so  far  as 
the  plans  are  concerned,"  so  is  misused  for  as.  The  mis- 
use of  like  for  as  is  not  uncommon;  as,  "  He  acted  just 
like  I  had  supposed  he  would  act" 

Assure— Promise. 

Between  these  words  there  is  not  any  connection,  yet 
promise  is  often  misused  for  assure  in  such  expressions 
as,  "  I  promise  you  that  it  is  a  true  statement,"  etc. 

At— By— In. 

Following  is  an  example  of  the  misuse  of  at  for  by: 
"  I  attended  the  sales  at  auction."  The  sense  here  evi- 
dently requires  the  preposition  by,  since  auction  denotes 
the  manner  of  sale.  At  is  less  specific  than  in,  and  it  is 
better  to  say,  "  I  attended  the  ball  in  Union  Hall,"  than 
it  is  to  say,  "  at  Union  Hall ; "  since  literally,  in  this  con- 
nection, at  may  mean  either  in  or  near  the  hall. 

Avocation— Vocation. 

A  man's  business,  calling,  or  profession  is  his  vocation. 
His  avocations  are  such  pursuits  or  diversions  as  serve 
incidentally  to  occupy  his  time  and  attention.  "  The  use 


10  VOCABULARY. 

of  this  word  \avocatioii\  for  vocation"  says  Webster,  "  is 
very  improper."  Thus:  "  Pliilosophy  is  the  vocation  of 
Herbert  Spencer,  but  fishing  and  hunting  may  be  his 
avocations"  * 

Avow — Acknowledge— Confess. 

An  admission  is  implied  by  each  of  these  words,  but 
under  different  circumstances.  Thus,  a  patriot  avows 
his  hostility  to  tyranny  and  is  applauded;  a  gentleman 
acknowledges  his  mistake  and  is  forgiven ;  a  prisoner  con- 
fesses his  crime  and  is  punished. 

Awful— Very. 

It  is  clumsy  in  the  extreme  to  use  awful  in  the  sense 
of  very ;  as,  "  It  is  awful  cold  to-day."  This  error  is  of 
common  occurrence. 


Balance— Remainder. 

Balance  refers  to  accounts,  etc.,  and  should  be  dis- 
tinguished from  remainder,  meaning  that  which  is  left  or 
remains;  while  balance,  in  its  common  sense,  signifies  to 
compare  in  relative  value  or  weight.  It  is  accordingly 
incorrect  to  say:  "The  balance  of  the  week." 

Beside— Besides. 

Beside  is  a  preposition,  meaning,  originally,  by  the  side 
of.  It  is  always  a  preposition,  and  only  a  preposition; 
as,  "  Nellie  sits  beside  you."  Usage  has  extended  the 
meaning  of  the  word  to  one  side,  or  out  of  the  regular 


VOCABULARY.  II 

course;  as,  "It  is  beside  my  present  business  to  consider 
a  deeper  phase  of  the  subject."  It  has  also  been  mod- 
ified to  mean  out  of,  or  in  a  state  of  deviation  from ;  as, 
"  You  are  beside  yourself."  Besides  is  also  a  preposition 
when  it  means  in  addition  to;  as,  "Besides  all  else, 
between  you  and  me  there  is  a  wide  gulf."  Besides  is  an 
adverb  when  it  means  moreover;  as,  "Tell  him,  besides, 
that  the  way  is  long  and  difficult."  Hence  the  use  of 
beside  as  an  adverb  is  incorrect. 

Between.     See  AMONG. 
Bestow— Confer. 

Bestow  is  said  of  things  given  among  persons  in  private 
life ;  confer  of  things  given  from  persons  in  authority  to 
those  below  them  in  rank.  Hence  one  friend  bestows  a 
favor  upon  another;  emperors  confer  privileges  on  their 
ministers. 

Beyond.     See  ABOVE. 

Become— Grow. 

These  words  are  commonly  confounded.  Grow  is  in- 
correctly used  for  \become  in  such  a  sentence  as,  "  The 
dark  sky  ^rtfzetf  clearer."  It  could  grow  darker;  it  could 
become  clearer. 

Behind.     See  AFTER. 

Bias — Prejudice. 

Bias  indicates  a  mental  leaning  which  influences  our 
feelings  or  opinions;  prejudice  a  pre-judgment  irrespect- 
ive of  the  merits  of  the  case.  Thus,  we  may  be  biased, 
either  for  or  against,  but  we  are  prejudiced  against.  Bias 
supposes  something  real,  whether  good  or  bad,  which 
affects  our  opinions,  but  prejudice  supposes  something 
unreal  or  false,  which  misleads  the  judgment.  Bias  may 
be  taken  in  a  neutral  or  a  good  sense ;  prejudice,  always 


12  VOCABULARY. 

in  a  bad  sense.     It  is  accordingly  incorrect  to  say:  "I 
was  prejudiced  in  his  favor." 

Blanch— Whiten. 

Blanch  is  to  make  white  by  withdrawing  the  color; 
^whiten  to  cover  or  color  with  white.  "His  face  whitened 
with  fear,"  is  accordingly  incorrect 

Booty— Prey. 

The  idea  of  plunder  is  common  to  these  words,  but  the 
use  of  prey  is  restricted  to  that  which  is  consumed,  or 
intended  for  consumption.  Hence  we  say  the  eagle  is  a 
bird  of  prey,  and  that  the  robbers  escaped  with  their 
booty. 

Bound— Determined. 

Bound  is  a  nautical  term,  and  cannot  be  correctly  used 
in  the  sense  of  ready,  or  determined;  as,  "I  am  bound 'to 
do  it."  We  may  properly  say:  "The  ship  is  bound  for 
Liverpool." 

Bountiful— Plentiful. 

Bountiful  applies  to  persons,  not  to  things,  and  has  no 
reference  to  quantity ;  hence  it  is  erroneous  to  use  it  as  a 
synonym  for  plentiful;  as,  "A  bountiful  breakfast." 

Brace— Pair— Couple. 

Two  persons  or  things  when  joined  or  linked  together 
form  a  couple.  The  difference  in  the  meaning  of  these 
words  may  be  thus  illustrated  :  "A  married  couple ;"  "A 
brace  of  ducks;"  "A  pair  of  gloves."  Couple,  of  these 
words,  is  most  frequently  misused ;  as,  "A  couple  of  dol- 
lars." 

Bravery — Courage. 

Bravery  is  inborn;  courage  is  the  result  of  reason, 
judgment. 


VOCABULARY.  13 

Bring'— Fetch. 

Bring  expresses  a  motion  toward,  not  away  from  the 
speaker  or  writer,  while  fetch  expresses  a  double  motion, 
first  from  and  then  toward  him.  Example:  A  servant 
brings  the  parcel  home  which  he  has  been  sent  to  fetch. 

Bury— Inter. 

Burial,  concealing  in  the  ground,  comprehends  simply 
the  purpose  of  the  action ;  interment  and  sepulture,  the 
manner  as  well  as  the  motive  of  the  act.  Interment  and 
sepulture  are  accompanied  by  religious  ceremonies,  and 
refer  to  the  bodies  of  human  beings  only ;  burial  is  not 
confined  to  humanity,  but  applies  also  to  the  lower  ani- 
mals, and  to  any  object  deposited  in  the  earth  for  the 
purpose  of  concealment.  Thus,  dogs  are  buried;  men 
are  interred.  Burial  requires  that  the  object  be  con- 
cealed under  ground ;  interment  may  be  used  for  depos- 
iting in  vaults.  Bury  is  familiarly  used  in  the  sense  of 
inter,  but  inter  cannot  properly  be  used  for  bury. 

But— That— If. 

But  is  often  misused  for  that  or  if;  as,  "  I  do  not 
doubt  but  he  will  come ; "  "I  should  not  wonder  but 
it  were  so." 

By— With. 

Both  of  these  words  imply  connection  between  an  in- 
strument and  the  agent  by  whom  it  is  used ;  but  with 
means  a  closer,  by  a  more  remote  relation.  To  illustrate: 
We  kill  a  man  with  a  sword ;  he  dies  by  violence. 

By.     See  AT. 


14  VOCABULARY. 


Can— May 

These  little  words  are  very  generally  misplaced.  "  Can 
I  go  out  to  the  park  to-day,  mother? "  has  a  very  differ- 
ent meaning  from  "May  I  go  out  to  the  park  to-day, 
mother? "  Permission  is  askbd  in  the  latter,  but  not  in 
the  former  sentence. 

Carry.     See  ADOPT. 

Carnival— Festival. 

Carnival  means  literally  a  farewell  to  meat,  and  in 
Catholic  countries,  it  is  a  festival  celebrated  a  week 
before  Lent;  but,  in  any  other  sense,  it  should  not  be 
used  synonymously  with  fun,  frolic,  or  festival',  as, 
"  The  Authors'  Carnival  was  a  pleasing  spectacle." 

Caligraphy— Chirography. 

The  difference  in  the  meaning  of  caligraphy  and  chir- 
ography  is  that  the  former  signifies  fair  penmanship,  and 
the  latter,  one's  own  handwriting,  irrespective  of  its  qual- 
ity. The  error  consists  in  the  use  of  caligraphy  for 
chirography. 

Capacious— Large. 

Capacious  means  having  the  capacity  to  hold  or  retain. 
It  is  often  ludicrously  confounded  with  large  \  as,  for  ex- 
ample, when  a  man  talks  of  a  capacious  rent  in  his  coat. 

Capacity.     See  ABILITY. 

Caption— Heading. 

Caption  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  heading; 
as,  "  The  caption  of  a  press  article."  Caption  is  that  part 


VOCABULARY.  15 

of  a  legal  instrument  which  shows  where,  when,  and  by 
what  authority  it  was  taken,  found,  or  executed. 

Casualty.     See  ACCIDENT. 

Character— Reputation. 

Careless  use  is  common  of  character  and  reputation, 
two  such  simple  words  that  it  would  seem  unnecessary 
to  define  them;  yet  it  may  be  remarked  that  their  mean- 
ing is  essentially  different.  A  man  of  bad  character  may 
have  a  good  reputation  and  vice  versa. 

Chastity— Continence. 

Both  of  these  words  denote  moral  virtues.  Cliastity 
prescribes  rules  for  the  indulgence  of  the  passions ;  con- 
tinence altogether  prohibits  such  indulgence. 

Circumstance— Incident— Fact. 

Crabb  thus  defines  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of 
these  common  and  much  abused  words:  "Incident  is 
what  happens ;  fact  is  what  is  done ;  circumstance  is  not 
only  what  happens  and  is  done,  but  whatever  is,  or  be- 
longs to  a  thing.  Circumstance  comprehends  in  its 
signification  whatever  may  be  said  or  thought,  of  any- 
thing ;  incident  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  whatever  may 
befall,  or  be  said  to  befall,  anything;  fact  includes  in  it 
nothing  but  what  really  is,  or  is  done." 

Civil— Polite. 

Little  distinction  is  observed  in  the  use  of  these  words. 
Polite  expresses  more  than  civil ,  and  it  is  possible  for 
one  to  be  civil  in  manner  and  conduct,  and  yet  not  polite. 
Example:  "The  landlord  gave  me  a  civil  reception,  but 
when  he  learned  my  name,  he  became  polite'' 


1 6  VOCABULARY. 

Clever— Generous. 

Clever,  is  often  erroneously  used  in  the  sense  of  gener- 
ous. Its  true  meaning  is  smart,  skillful,  adroit. 

Clumsy — Awkward. 

A  clumsy  man  lacks  grace  of  shape ;  an  awkward  man 
lacks  grace  of  action.  Clumsy  is  opposed  to  elegant; 
awkward,  to  adroit.  We  do  not  discover  awkiuardness 
before  something  is  done ;  clumsiness  is  seen  in  the  very 
appearance  of  a  thing,  or  person. 

Complete— Finish. 

The  verb  finish  has  a  more  restricted  meaning  than 
complete.  A  builder,  for  example,  may  finisJi  a  house  and 
yet  fail  to  complete  it.  When  anything  is  completed,  it 
lacks  nothing;  when  it  is  finished,  all  has  been  done  to 
it  that  was  intended. 

Comprehend.     See  APPREHEND. 

Condign — Severe. 

Condign  means  that  which  is  merited  or  deserved.  It 
is  accordingly  absurd  to  use  it  in  the  sense  of  severe;  as, 
"The  villain  did  not  deserve  the  condign  punishment 
which  he  received."  This  is  a  palpable  contradiction  in 
terms,  equivalent  to  saying,  that  he  did  not  deserve  the 
deserved  punishment. 

Condone— Compensate — Atone. 

Condone,  which  means  to  forgive,  should  not  be  used 
in  the  sense  of  compensate,  or  atone. 

Conduct— Behavior. 

Behavior  refers  to  our  manner  of  acting  on  particular 
occasions;  conduct,  to  the  general  tenor  of  our  actions. 
Hence,  the  gallant  behavior  of  the  soldier  in  battle;  the 


VOCABULARY.  I/ 

uniformly  wise  and  temperate  conduct  of  all  good  citizens. 
Our  humor  influences  our  behavior;  conduct  is  influenced 
by  our  morals  and  temper. 

Confer.     See  BESTOW. 

Confess.    See  Avow. 

Confound.     See  ABASH. 
Confuse.     See  ABASH. 

Conscientious — Scrupulous. 

A  conscientious  man  does  nothing  to  offend  his  con- 
science; a  scrupulous  man  often  has  his  scruples  on 
minor  points.  Hence,  a  man  may  be  scrupulous,  yet  not 
necessarily  conscientious.  We  should  endeavor  to  be 
conscientious,  without  being  over-scrupulous. 

Consequence — Importance. 

The  etymological  meaning  of  consequence  is  a  sequence, 
a  result,  and  careful  writers  do  not  sanction  its  use  in  the 
sense  of  importance.  Says  Professor  Gould:  "The 
phrase,  however,  is  now  so  universally  used,  and  it  is  so 
generally  accredited  by  both  lexicographers  and  good 
writers,  that  no  man  can  be  justified  in  asserting  dogmat- 
ically that  it  is  a  corruption  of  language." 

Consider— Think— Suppose. 

"This  word,"  says  Richard  Grant  White,  referring  to 
consider,  "  is  perverted  from  its  true  meaning  by  most  of 
those  who  use  it."  Consider  means  to  meditate,  to  delib- 
erate, to  reflect,  and  cannot  properly  be  used  for  think, 
or  suppose,  in  such  sentences  as,  "  I  consider  his  conduct 
very  ungentlemanly." 

Constantly— Continually. 

Constantly,  meaning  firmly,  or  steadfastly,  is  commonly 
misused  for  continually ;  as,  "  The  trade  of  the  house  is 


18  VOCABULARV. 

constantly  increasing."  That  which  is  continual  may  not 
always  continue  in  the  same  state,  and  is  applied  to  that 
which  is  expected  to  cease ;  that  which  is  constant,  how- 
ever, remains  in  the  same  state,  and  is  applied  to  that 
which  ought  to  last.  Thus,  we  hear  continual  noises,  and 
constantly  try  to  live  in  peace. 

Contemptible— Contemptuous. 

Contemptible  is  sometimes  misused  for  contemptuous ; 
as,  "  I  entertain  a  contemptible  opinion  of  you."  The 
speaker  here  unintentionally  casts  a  reflection  upon  his 
own  opinion,  instead  of  upon  the  character  of  the  person 
addressed. 

Contiguous.     See  ADJACENT. 

Convene— Convoke. 

Convoke  has  been  nearly  banished  from  the  current 
literature  of  the  day  by  the  adoption,  as  a  substitute,  of 
the  word  convene.  Convoke  means  to  call  together;  con- 
<veney  to  assemble,  or  come  together.  The  correct  usage 
is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  following  sentence:  "Con- 
gress convened  soon  after  it  had  been  convoked  by 
the  President." 

Convenient— Near. 

Convenient  should  not  be  used  as  if  synonymous  with 
near.  For  example:  "The  hotel  is  convenient  to  your 
house."  While  the  hotel  may  be  near  the  house,  it  may 
be  the  reverse  of  convenient. 

Corporal— Corporeal. 

Corporal  is  employed  only  for  the  animal  frame,  or  the 
body  in  its  proper  sense.  "  Corporeal  for  corporal''  says 
Professor  Mathews,  "is  a  gross  vulgarism,  the  use  of 


VOCABULARY.  19 

which,  at  this  day,  should  almost  subject  an  educated 
man  to  the  kind  of  punishment  which  the  latter  adjective 
designates.  Corporeal  means  having  a  body  corporal,  or 
belonging  to  a  body." 

Couple.     See  BRACE. 

Courage.     See  BRAVERY. 

Course.     See  ALTERNATIVE. 

Courteous.     See  AFFABLE. 

Crime— Vice— Sin. 

Much  confusion  prevails  in  the  use  of  these  three  little 
words.  Crime  is  the  violation  of  the  secular  law  of  the 
country  in  which  we  live;  sin,  the  violation  of  a  religious 
law;  vice,  the  violation  of  the  laws  of  morality  to  our 
own  injury,  or  the  injury  of  others.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  a  man  may  be  criminal,  yet  not  sinful;  vicious,  yet 
not  criminal;  and  sinful,  yet  neither  vicious  nor  criminal. 

Curious— Strange— Remarkable. 

Curious  signifies  prying,  or  inquisitive,  nice,  or  intri- 
cate, and  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  strange,  or 
remarkable;  as,  "  It  was  a  very  curious  phenomenon." 

Custom— Habit. 

Between  the  meaning  of  these  words,  so  often  used 
in  defiance  of  the  laws  of  precision,  there  is  an  apprecia- 
ble difference.  Custom  is  a  frequent  repetition ;  Jiabit, 
the  result  of  such  a  repetition.  By  the  custom  of  early 
rising  we  form  habits  of  diligence.  Custom  applies  to 
men  individually,  or  collectively ;  habit  applies  to  them  as 
individuals  only.  Every  man  has  his  peculiar  habits; 
every  nation  has  its  customs. 


2O  VOCABULARY. 


Decimate— Reduce. 

Decimate,  meaning  to  take  the  tenth  part,  is  often  im- 
properly used  for  reduce;  as,  "  The  regiment  was  terribly 
decimated  by  the  enemy's  artillery." 

Defalcate— Default. 

Defalcate,  signifying  to  detract  from,  cannot  properly 
be  used  for  default,  yet  we  are  continually  hearing  of  the 
defalcation  of  bank  clerks,  etc.,  whose  real  offense  has 
been  defaulting,  not  defalcation. 

Demean— Debase— Humble. 

Demean  has,  of  late  years,  been  often  misused  for 
debase,  or  humble.  Demean  signifies  to  behave,  to  carry, 
to  conduct.  Hence  it  is  incorrect  to  say:  "  He  demeaned 
himself  before  his  mother." 

Deprecate— Disapprove — Condemn. 

Deprecate  is  properly  used  as  meaning  to  beg  off,  to 
entreat,  to  pray  exemption,  or  deliverance  from.  It  is 
often,  however,  erroneously  used  as  if  synonymous  with 
disapprove  and  condemn;  as,  "  I  deprecate  the  action  which 
you  have  taken." 

Description— Sort — Kind. 

It  is  not  in  good  taste  to  use  description  as  if  synon- 
ymous with  sort  and  kind;  as,  "  His  manners  were  not 
always  of  the  most  amiable  description."  The  meaning 
of  description  is  a  sketch,  an  account,  a  representation,  an 
enumeration,  a  recital,  a  class. 


VOCABULARY.  21 

Deteriorate— Detract. 

These  words  are  sometimes  confused.  Deteriorate 
means  to  make  or  grow  worse;  detract,  to  take  away 
from  one's  credit.  Deteriorate  is  misused  for  detract  in 
the  following-  sentence :  "  I  do  not  wish  to  deteriorate  from 
the  merits  of  that  great  man." 

Determined.    See  BOUND. 
Detest — See  ABHOR. 

Difference— Distinction. 

Difference  lies  in  the  thing ;  distinction  is  the  act  of  the 
person.  Difference  is  to  distinction  as  the  cause  is  to  the 
effect ;  the  distinction  rests  upon  the  difference.  Those  are 
equally  bad  logicians,  who  make  a  distinction  without  a 
difference,  or  who  make  no  distinction  where  there  is  a 
difference. 

Dirt— Earth— Soil. 

The  meaning  of  dirt  is  filth,  or  anything  which  causes 
foulness  or  uncleanness.  It  is  common  to  hear  it  incor- 
rectly used  for  earth  or  soil ;  as,  "  He  threw  a  shovelful 
of  dirt  into  the  grave." 

Distinguish — Discriminate. 

Distinguish  is  the  general,  discriminate,  the  particular 
term.  We  distinguish  by  means  of  the  senses  as  well  as 
the  understanding;  we  discriminate  by  the  understanding 
only.  Hence  we  speak  of  a  distinction  as  true  or  false, 
but  of  a  discrimination  as  nice.  "It  was  easy  to  discrim- 
inate the  bay  from  the  gray  horse."  Distinguish  is  the 
proper  word  in  this  sentence.  DistinguisJi  is  inaccurately 
used  in  the  expression  :  "  I  could  not  distinguish  between 
the  meaning  of  the  two  words." 


22  VOCABULARY. 

Divide— Separate. 

Divide  signifies  to  make  into  two ;  separate,  to  make 
into  parts.  That  is  said  to  be  divided  which  has  been, 
or  is  conceived  to  be,  a  whole;  that  is  separated  which 
might  be  joined.  Thus,  an  army  may  be  divided  into 
divisions ;  the  divisions  are  likely  to  be  separated. 

Dock— Wharf— Pier. 

When  we  remember  that  a  dock  is  an  open  place,  with- 
out a  roof,  into  which  vessels  are  received,  the  distinction 
between  it  and  a  ivJiarf  or  pier  will  be  apparent;  and  we 
shall  find  it  difficult  to  realize  how  any  one  can  fall  from 
a  dock  into  the  water,  although  persons  occasionally  do 
so  fall  from  wJiarves. 

Donate— Give— Bestow. 

The  use  of  the  word  donate  for  give  or  bestow  is  con- 
demned by  critics,  and  avoided  by  careful  writers.  The 
impropriety  of  using  donate  in  this  sense  is  illustrated  by 
the  following  example :  "  Please  donate  me  an  apple." 
"Donate"  says  Professor  Gould,  "  may  be  dismissed  with 
this  remark :  '  So  long  as  its  place  is  occupied  by  give^ 
bestow,  grant,  present,  etc.,  it  is  not  needed ;  and  it  should 
be  unceremoniously  bowed  out,  or  thrust  out,  of  the  seat 
into  which  it  has  temporarily  intruded/  " 

Don't— Doesn't. 

Do  n't,  a  colloquialism,  is  often  misused  for  does  n't,  or 
does  not;  as,  "He  don't  wish  to  walk  home."  When 
it  is  remembered  that  do  rit  is  a  contraction  of  do  not,  the 
absurdity  of  such  usage  will  be  evident. 

Dramatize.    See  ADAPT. 


VOCABULARY.  23 

Drive— Ride. 

The  word  drive  is  often  misused  for  ride,  as  in  the 
expression :  "I  took  a  drive  in  the  park."  One  may  ride 
either  on  horseback  or  in  a  carriage ;  but  must  hold  the 
lines  to  drive.  The  misuse  of  drive  for  ride  is  more  com- 
mon with  English  than  Americans. 

Drunk— Intoxicated. 

These  words  are  commonly  used  without  due  discrimi- 
nation. Drunk  is  a  Saxon  word  and  means  inebriated, 
while  intoxicate  is  derived  from  the  Greek  toxikon,  a 
poison  into  which  arrows  were  dipped,  and  conveys  the 
idea  of  poisoning  in  addition  to  that  of  inebriety.  Thus 
a  man  can  be  intoxicated,  only  when  he  has  lost  his  wits, 
not  by  the  quantity  but  by  the  quality  of  the  drugged  or 
poisonous  liquor  which  he  has  drunk. 

Due— Owing*. 

These  words  should  not  be  used  indiscriminately. 
Due  is  often  misused  for  owing.  That  is  owing-  which  is 
to  be  referred  to  as  a  source ;  that  is  due  which  ought  to 
be  paid,  as  a  debt.  Following  is  an  example  of  the  in- 
correct use  of  due  for  owing:  "  It  was  due  to  your 
carelessness  that  the  accident  happened."  Owing-  is 
sometimes  confounded  with  due;  as,  "  It  is  owing  to  my 
friends  that  I  should  be  candid." 

Dumb — Mute. 

A  dumb  person  is  one  who  lacks  the  power  of  speech ; 
while  one  may  be  mute,  either  from  inclination  or  neces- 
sity, and  yet  have  the  ability,  if  not  the  will,  to  speak. 

Duty — Obligation. 

Duty  arises  from  the  natural  relations  of  society,  and 
concerns  the  concience;  obligation  is  a  species  of  duty, 


24  VOCABULARY. 

and  arises   from  circumstances.     Accordingly,  what  we 
bind  ourselves  to  do,  irrespective  of  our  natural  duties, 


is  an  obligation. 


E 

Earth— See  DIRT. 

Either— Neither— Each. 

Either  refers  to  one  or  the  other,  and  as  a  rule,  is  lim- 
ited in  its  application  to  two  objects.  The  same  defi- 
nition negatively  is  true  of  neither;  namely,  not  either; 
not  one  or  the  other,  the  word  thus  referring  to  only  two. 
Either  is  often  improperly  used  for  each;  as,  "  On  either 
side  of  the  river  was  the  tree  of  life."  Here  it  is  not 
meant  that  if  the  tree  were  not  on  this  side  of  the  river 
it  was  on  that ;  but  that  it  was  on  each  side.  Custom  has 
sanctioned  the  use  of  either  where  there  are  more  than 
two  objects,  in  such  exceptional  phrases  as,  "either 
Monday,  Tuesday,  or  Wednesday."  Ordinarily,  when 
more  than  two  things  are  referred  to,  any  and  none 
should  be  used  instead  of  either  and  neither;  as,  "any 
of  the  twelve  jurors;"  "none  of  the  six  teachers,"  etc. 

Elder— Older. 

Elder  applies  to  rational  beings ;  older,  to  objects  ani- 
mate and  inanimate.  Thus,  it  is  erroneous  to  say:  "  I 
am  the  older  of  the  two;  "  or  "  New  Yo,rk  is  an  elder  city 
than  San  Francisco." 


VOCABULARY.  25 

Elect— Choose. 

To  elect  is  always  the  act  of  a  number ;  to  cJwose  may 
be  either  the  act  of  one  or  many.  Thus,  a  Governor 
chooses  his  Secretary;  the  Assembly  elects  its  Speaker. 

Eliminate— Elicit. 

Eliminate  is  derived  from  the  Latin  eliminare,  to  put 
forth  from  the  threshold,  to  expel.  Eliminate  first  ob- 
tained general  currency  by  its  use  in  mathematical  works, 
there  signifying  the  process  of  causing  a  function  to  dis- 
appear from  an  equation.  In  other  writings  the  word 
means  the  extrusion  of  that  which  is  superfluous,  or 
irrelevant.  It  is  sometimes  improperly  employed  for 
elicit ';  as,  "Results  which,  when  once  eliminated,  no 
thinker  can  hesitate  to  accept."  Eliminate  is  correctly 
used  in  the  following  sentence :  "  The  poor  author  might 
complain  that  the  most  important  moral  was  thus  elim- 
inated from  his  book." 

Emphasis.     See  ACCENT. 
Employ— Use. 

Employ  expresses  less  than  use;  we  always  employ 
when  we  use,  but  do  not  always  use  when  we  employ.  We 
employ  whatever  we  make  subservient  to  our  conven- 
ience for  a  time ;  we  use  whatever  we  entirely  devote  to 
our  purpose.  What  we  employ  may  belong  to  another; 
what  we  use  is  supposed  to  be  our  own.  Thus,  we  use 
implements,  but  employ  persons. 

Empty— Vacant. 

A  thing  is  empty  when  there  is  nothing  in  it;  as,  an 
empty  barrel.  Vacant  adds  the  idea  of  its  having  been 
previously  filled,  or  that  it  is  about  to  be  filled:  as,  a 
vacant  mind,  or,  a  vacant  chair. 


26  VOCABULARY. 

Enough — Sufficient. 

A  well-defined  difference  exists  between  the  meaning 
of  these  words.  Sufficient  implies  so  much  as  is  needed  ; 
enoiigh,  all  that  is  desired.  Enough  is  the  broader  term. 
To  illustrate :  a  man  may  have  sufficient  food,  and  yet 
not  have  enough. 

Entire.     See  WHOLE. 
Epithet.     See  ADJECTIVE. 

Ever — Never. 

The  word  never  is  not  infrequently  misused  for  ever; 
as,  "  Charm  he  never  so  wisely."  Ever  is  an  adverb  of 
degree,  and  does  not  relate  to  time,  in  such  sentences  as 
the  foregoing. 

Every— Great — Perfect. 

Every  means  simply,  each  or  all  taken  separately,  but 
it  is  often  employed  in  the  sense  of  great  and  perfect;  as, 
"  He  was  at  every  pains  to  secure  the  nomination ;"  "  He 
Js  a  man  in  whom  I  have  every  confidence." 

Evidence— Testimony. 

Between  these  words  there  is  a  well-defined  differ- 
ence. Evidence  relates  to  the  convictive  view  of  the 
mind ;  testimony  to  the  knowledge  of  a  person  concerning 
some  fact.  Testimony,  is  a  broader  term  than  evidence. 
The  evidence  in  a  case  in  court  may  be  the  reverse  of  the 
testimony. 

Exact.     See  ACCURATE. 

Example— Instance. 

Example  has  an  active,  instance,  a  passive  sense.  An 
example  is  a  thing  or  person ;  an  instance  is  something 
done.  An  example  incites  us  to  act ;  an  instance  excites 


VOCABULARY.  2? 

us  to  reflect.     Men  are  examples  of  virtue  or  vice;  their 
actions  are  instances  of  virtue  or  vice. 

Except — Unless. 

Unless  is  equivalent  to  if  less,  if  not,  or  if  one  fail,  and 
is  employed  only  for  the  particular  case.  Except  always 
refers  to  some  general  rule,  to  which  an  exception  is 
signified.  Except  is  often  misused  for  unless;  thus,  "  You 
need  not  apply  except  you  are  a  competent  accountant." 

Excessively— Exceedingly. 

Excessively  is  sometimes  awkwardly  used  for  exceed- 
ingly ;  as,  "  It  is  excessively  warm." 

Execute— Hang-. 

The  misuse  of  these  words  is  very  common.  The 
news-journals  always  announce  that  "  the  criminal  was 
executed!'  He,  in  truth,  was  hanged,  but  the  death  sen- 
tence which  had  been  passed  upon  him  by  the  court  was 
executed. 

Exigency— Emergency. 

Exigency  signifies  what  the  case  demands ;  emergency,. 
what  rises  out  of  the  case.  Thus  an  exigency  is  more 
common  but  less  pressing.  Example :  A  prudent  trav- 
eler carries  sufficient  money  to  supply  the  exigencies  of 
his  journey;  but,  if  an  emergency  arises,  he  may  be  com- 
pelled to  borrow.  Exigency  is  sometimes  misused  for 
emergency ;  as,  "  He  was  unprepared  to  meet  the  exigency" 

Expect— Think— Suppose. 

Expect,  implying  futurity,  is  very  loosely  employed  in 
the  sense  of  think,  or  suppose;  as,  "  I  expect  you  enjoyed 
your  visit."  We  may  say,  correctly:  "I  expect  company 
to-morrow; "  but  the  word  can  never  be  properly  applied 
to  the  present  or  to  the  past. 


28  VOCABULARY. 

Extend— Give. 

Concerning  these  words  Richard  Grant  White  perti- 
nently says:  "As  extend  [from  ex  and  tendo\  means 
merely  to  stretch  forth,  it  is  much  better  to  say  that  a 
man  put  out,  offered,  or  stretched  forth  his  hand,  than 
that  he  extended  it."  "  I  will  extend  him  an  invitation," 
illustrates  the  objectionable,  if  not  literally  erroneous  use 
of  the  word. 

Extenuate — Palliate. 

These  words  are  nearly,  yet  not  exactly  synonymous. 
Extenuate  means  to  lessen  guilt  without  regard  to  the 
mode,  and  is  rather  the  effect  of  circumstances ;  palliate, 
is  to  lessen  by  means  of  art  "  The  circumstances  pal- 
liated the  guilt  of  the  criminal."  Here  the  proper  word 
would  be  extenuated. 


Face— Front. 

Face  is  applied  to  that  part  of  bodies  which  serves  as 
an  index,  or  rule;  front,  to  that  part  which  is  most  prom- 
inent, or  foremost.  Hence  we  speak  of  the  face  of 
nature,  they^?  of  a  picture-  but,  of  the/;w//  of  a  house, 
and  the  front  of  a  stage. 

Fact.     See  CIRCUMSTANCE. 
Famous— Celebrated— Renowned. 

Famous  is  applicable  to  that  which  causes  a  noise  or 
sensation ;  celebrated  to  that  which  is  praised  and  honored 


VOCABULARY.  29 

with  solemnity;  renozvned  to  whatever  extends  the  name, 
or  causes  it  to  be  often  repeated.  Hence,  one  may  be 
famous  for  his  eccentricities  ;  celebrated  as  an  author,  or 
an  orator;  renowned  as  a  warrior,  or  a  statesman. 

Fancy — Imagination. 

Many  writers  appear  to  be  unaware  of  the  difference 
between  fancy  and  imagination,  which  is  thus  defined  by 
that  eminent  philologist  Dean  Trench :  "  Imagination  is 
the  higher  exercise  of  the  two  faculties.  It  creates  by 
laws  more  closely  connected  with  the  reason;  it  has 
strong  emotion  as  its  actuating  and  formative  cause;  it 
aims  at  results  of  a  definite  and  weighty  character. 
Fancy  moves  on  a  lighter  wing;  it  is  governed  by  laws  of 
association  which  are  more  remote,  and  sometimes  arbi- 
trary, or  capricious.  It  has  for  its  actuating  spirit  feel- 
ings of  a  lively,  gay,  and  versatile  character;  it  seeks  to 
please  by  unexpected  combinations  of  thought,  startling 
contrasts, 'flashes  of  brilliant  imagery,  etc." 

Farther — Further. 

There  is  hardly  any  difference  in  the  meaning  of  these 
words,  which  are  used  as  adjectives,  verbs  and  adverbs; 
still  they  are  not  always  similarly  applied.  Further  con- 
sidered, as  an  adjective,  is  correct ;  " but  farther"  says 
Webster,  "is  the  more  common  where  distance  is  signi- 
fied." The  use  of  farther  as  a  verb  is  rare,  and  in  nearly 
all  cases  the  preference,  according  to  modern  authorities, 
should  be  given  to  further. 

Female— Woman. 

As  a  noun  female  is  often  very  inelegantly,  if  not 
incorrectly  used  in  place  of  woman;  as,  "Joan  of  Arc 
was  a  remarkable  female"  The  adjective  femate  is  also 


30  VOCABULARY. 

used  with  equally  bad  taste.  Female  is  used  properly  to 
denote  the  sex,  and  should  not  be  applied  indiscrimin- 
ately, since  it  is  not  limited  to  humanity,  but  refers  to 
lower  animals  as  well  as  to  women. 

Festival.     See  CARNIVAL. 
Fetch — See  BRING. 

Fewer— Less. 

The  misuse  of  fewer  and  less  is  very  common.  Less 
usually  relates  to  quantity;  fewer  to  number.  It  is  ac- 
cordingly bad  English  to  say:  "In  San  Francisco  there 
are  less  than  200  public  schools."  "  Less  than  a  ton  of 
coal,"  is  a  correct  expression,  as  are  also  the  following, 
which  illustrate  the  exceptions  to  the  rule :  "  He  is  less 
than  six  feet  high;"  "The  earth  is  less  than  30,000  miles 
in  circumference."  In  the  last  two  examples  it  is  evident 
that  fewer  could  not  properly  be  substituted  for  less. 

Final — Conclusive. 

Final  means  having  an  end;  conclusive,  coming  to  a 
conclusion.  Final  designates  simply  the  circumstance  of 
being  the  last;  conclusive,  the  mode  of  finishing,  or  com- 
ing to  the  last  The  final  is  arbitrary  ;  the  conclusive  is 
relative.  Thus  we  say,  a  final  answer;  a  conclusive  argu- 
ment. 

Fire— Heat. 

Fire  is  to  heat  as  the  cause  is  to  the  effect.  Fin-  is 
perceptible  to  the  sight,  as  well  as  to  the  touch ;  Jieat  is 
perceptible  only  by  the  touch.  Hence  we  may  distin- 
guish ^£>r  by  means  of  the  flame  it  emits;  heat,  only  by 
the  sensations  which  it  produces  in  ourselves.  It  is  not 
correct  to  say:  "A  terrible  fire  is  raging  within  me." 


VOCABULARY.  31 

First— Firstly. 

Although  sanctioned  by  some  critics,  it  is  not  desirable 
to  use  the  adverb  firstly,  however  euphonious  it  may  be 
in  certain  cases,  for  first.  Firstly  is  given  in  Webster 
with  the  remark:  "  Improperly  used  for  first" 

Fly— Flee. 

Although  closely  connected,  these  verbs  are  not  inter- 
changeable. Fly  means  to  move  with  wings,  fast  or  slow ; 
flee,  to  move  with  voluntary  rapidity.  "  I'll  fly  to  the 
rescue,"  is  an  expression  allowable  in  a  figurative  sense 
only.  It  is  incorrect  to  say:  "  I  shall  fly  from  my  ene- 
mies." Angels  and  eagles  mayjfy,  but  men  and  women, 
not  being  provided  with  wings,  can  onlyfae. 

Freedom— Liberty. 

It  is  common  to  use  these  words  unadvisedly,  yet  each 
has  its  peculiar  significance.  Freedom  is  personal  and 
private;  liberty  is  public.  The  freedom  of  the  city  is 
the  privilege  granted  by  the  authorities  to  individuals; 
the  liberties  of  the  city  are  the  immunities  which  it  en- 
joys. All  natives  of  the  United  States  are  born  free,  but 
they  may,  at  times,  be  temporarily  restrained  of  their 
liberty.  Freedom  serves  also  to  qualify  the  action ;  liberty 
is  applied  only  to  the  agent.  Hence,  we  may  speak  or 
think  with  freedom  ;  but  we  have  the  liberty  of  speaking, 
thinking,  or  acting. 

Friend— Acquaintance. 

Between  these  words  there  is  a  distinct  difference  not 
always  observed.  Friend  implies  a  far  nearer  and  dearer 
degree  of  relationship  than  acquaintance ;  thus,  we  may 
have  many  acquaintances,  but  comparatively  few  friends. 


32  VOCABULARY. 

Future— Subsequent. 

The  meaning  of 'future  is,  about  to  be,  coming;  it  is  often 
strangely  employed  for  subsequent,  that  which  follows  or 
comes  after;  as,  "When  I  began  to  read  the  book  it 
deeply  interested  me,  but  after  the  first  chapter  the 
future  chapters  were  very  dull." 


G 

General— Universal. 

General  is  to  universal  as  a  part  to  the  whole.  What 
is  getieral  includes  the  greater  part,  or  number ;  what  is 
universal  includes  every  individual,  or  every  part.  A 
general  rule  admits  of  exceptions ;  a  universal  rule  admits 
of  none.  Examples:  "It  is  generally  believed  that  the 
mental  capacities  of  the  sexes  are  equal."  "  It  is  a  uni- 
versal principle  that  children  should  honor  their  parents." 

Generous.     See  CLEVER. 

Genteel— Polite. 

There  may  be  gentility  without  politeness,  and  vice 
versa.  A  genteel  education  is  suited  to  the  station  of  a 
gentleman;  a  polite  education,  to  polished  society.  Gen- 
tility respects  rank ;  politeness,  the  refinement  of  the 
mind  and  outward  behavior. 

Gentleness— lameness. 

Gentleness  is  an  attribute  of  nature;  tamcness,  the 
result  of  discipline.  These  words  are  misapplied  in  the 


VOCABULARY.  33 

following  sentences:  "The  lion  after  a  brief  training 
became  perfectly  gentle"  "  The  dog  was  too  tame  to  be 
dangerous." 

Genuine— Authentic. 

A  genuine  book  is  one  written  by  the  author  whose 
name  it  bears;  an  authentic  book  is  one  which  deals 
truthfully  with  its  subject. 

Get— Take— Become. 

Get  signifies  to  strive  after ;  to  desire.  Where,  then,  is 
the  justification  for  such  expressions  as,  "  I  shall  get 
cold;"  "You  are  getting  crazy;"  unless  the  idea  be 
that  the  cold  and  the  insanity  are  really  desired  ?  We 
should  say,  "  I  shall  take  cold ;  "  "  You  are  becoming  crazy." 

Give.     See  ACCORD. 
• 
Glimpse— Glance. 

A  glimpse  is  the  action  of  the  object  appearing  to  the 
eye;  a  glance,  the  action  of  the  eye  seeking  the  object. 
Thus  we  catch  a  glimpse ;  we  cast  a  glance. 

Grant.     See  ACCORD. 

Gratuitous— Unwarranted. 

It  is  customary  to  misuse  gratuitous >  which  means 
without  payment,  for  untrue,  or  unwarranted;  as,  "  The 
intimation  that  the  tax-levy  measure  had  been  vetoed  by 
the  Mayor,  was  wholly  gratuitous" 

Great.     See  EVERY. 

Grow.     See  BECOME.  ± 


34  VOCABULARY. 

H 

Habit.     See  CUSTOM. 
Hanged— Hung. 

The  misuse  of  these  words  is  very  common.  Hung  is 
ordinarily  the  correct  word,  but  when  we  refer  to  suspen- 
sion by  the  neck,  as  in  the  case  of  criminals,  hanged 
should  be  used.  See  EXECUTE. 

Hardly — Scarcely. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  these  words  have  a  dis- 
tinct meaning.  Plardly  refers  to  degree;  scarcely,  to 
quantity.  Thus  we  say :  "  I  can  hardly  learn  my  lesson 
to-day,  as  there  is  scarcely  time." 

Haste — Hurry. 

These  words,  though  widely  different  in  meaning,  are 
often  confounded.  Hurry  conveys  the  idea  of  haste, 
accompanied  by  precipitation  and  confusion;  while  haste 
implies  only  rapidity  of  action,  an  eager  desire  to  make 
progress;  and  may  exist  with  deliberation  and  dignity. 
Thus,  we  should  hasten,  but  not  hurry  >  in  acquiring  an 
education. 

Heading.     See  CAPTION. 

Healthy — Wholesome. 

Healthy  means  in  a  state  of  health,  and  is  frequently 
misapplied  for  wholesome,  signifying  that  which  is  condu- 
cive to  health.  Example:  Lobsters  are  usually  healthy, 
but  not  wholesome. 

Hollow— Empty. 

Hollow  respects  the  thing  itself;  the  absence  of  its  own 
materials  produces  hollowness.  The  absence  of  foreign 


VOCABULARY.  35 

substances  in  anything  constitutes  emptiness.  What  is 
empty  must  be  hollow ;  but  what  is  hollow  need  not  be 
empty.  Thus,  a  nut  is  hollow  so  that  it  may  contain  its 
kernel ;  it  is  empty  if  it  has  no  kernel. 

Home — Residence. 

A  man  may  have  many  residences,  but  only  one  home. 
Residence  means  a  temporary,  home  a  permanent  place 
of  abode. 

Hope— Expectation. 

Hope  is  that  which  is  welcome;  expectation  is  either 
welcome  or  unwelcome.  The  young  hope  to  live  long; 
the  old  expect  to  die  soon. 

How— That. 

How,  meaning  the  manner  in  which,  is  often  confused 
with  that;  as,  "  I  have  heard  Jioiv  some  critics  have  been 
pacified  with  claret  and  a  supper,  and  others  laid  asleep 
with  soft  notes  of  flattery." — Dr.  Jolmson. 

Humanitarian— Philanthropist. 

Few  people  are  aware  of  the  proper  use  of  these 
words.  Humanitarian,  Webster  to  the  contrary,  signifies 
one  who  denies  the  divinity  of  Christ;  philanthropist^  a 
lover  of  mankind.  It  is  accordingly  inexact  to  say: 
"  The  condition  of  the  working  classes  has  been  greatly 
ameliorated  by  modern  humanitarians" 

Humble.     See  DEMEAN. 
Humor — Mood. 

While  humor  and  mood  both  indicate  a  temporary  state 
of  feeling,  they  differ  in  the  cause;  humor  being  attrib- 
utable jnore  to  the  physical,  and  mood  to  the  mental 
state.  Hiimor  is  determined  by  influences  within  our- 
selves; mood,  entirely  by  events.  Humor  is  commonly 


36  VOCABULARY. 

taken  in  a  bad,  mood  in  an  indifferent  sense.  The  cor- 
rect usage  may  be  thus  illustrated;  "On  receipt  of  the 
telegram  he  was  in  a  good  humor,  but  after  reading 
it  he  fell  into  a  melancholy  mood" 

Hypocrite— Dissembler. 

The  distinction  between  these  words  is  not  generally 
comprehended.  The  hypocrite  feigns  to  be  what  he 
is  not ;  the  dissembler  conceals  what  he  is.  Thus,  every 
hypocrite  is  a  dissembler,  but  every  dissembler  is  not  a  hypo- 
crite. 


Ice— Iced. 

It  is  a  very  common  but  incorrect  custom  to  confuse 
the  words  ice  and  iced;  as,  in  "  ice  cream,"  "  ice  water." 
Here,  while  there  is  but  little  difference  in  the  sound,  there 
is  a  great  deal  in  the  sense.  Ice  cream  really  has  no  ex- 
istence; that  which  is  called  ice  cream  is  cream  iced; 
hence,  properly,  iced  cream.  Ice  water  is  the  product  of 
melted  ice,  and  may  be  either  warm  or  cold,  but  water  into 
which  ice  is  put  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  cold  is 
iced  water. 

Ideal— Imaginary. 

The  ideal  is  not  directly  opposed  to,  but  is  abstracted 
from  the  real ;  the  imaginary,  on  the  contrary,  is  directly 
opposed  to  the  real ;  it  is  the  unreal  formed  by  the  imag- 
ination. Ideal  happiness,  for  example,  exists  in  the 
mind  without  any  actual  prototype  in  nature;  but  it  may 


VOCABULARY.  37 

still  be  possible  of  realization.  The  imaginary,  on  the 
contrary,  is  a  mental  state  in  opposition  to  some  positive 
reality;  as,  the  imaginary  pleasure  of  a  lunatic  who 
thinks  himself  a  king. 

If.     See  BUT. 
Ignorant— Illiterate. 

Ignorant  is  a  comprehensive  term  implying  much  more 
than  illiterate.  A  man  may  be  illiterate,  that  is  un- 
learned, unlettered,  uneducated,  and  yet  be  very  clever 
and  far  from  ignorant  of  human  nature  and  the  ways  of 
the  world ;  but  to  say  that  one  is  ignorant  is  to  imply  that 
he  is  also  illiterate. 

Ill— Sick. 

The  stronger  and  generally  the  better  of  these  words 
is  sick.  The  use  of  ill  is  common  in  England,  but  less 
popular  in  America,  where  the  preference  appears  to  be 
for  sick. 

Imagination.     See  FANCY. 

Imbroglio— Row — Quarrel. 

Imbroglio  means  an  intricate  or  complicated  plot,  and 
cannot  properly  be  used  for  row  or  quarrel ;  as,  "  They 
were  engaged  in  a  noisy  and  violent  imbroglio  over  the 
title  to  the  land." 

Imitate— Copy— Counterfeit 

To  imitate  is  to  take  a  general  likeness;  to  copy  is  to 
take  an  exact  likeness ;  to  counterfeit  is  to  take  a  false 
likeness.  Imitate  is  used  in  an  indifferent  or  a  good 
sense;  copy,  often,  and  counterfeit^  still  oftener,  in  a  bad 
sense.  Hence,  to  imitate  an  author's  style  is  always  per- 
missible; but  to  copy  it  would  be  a  too  slavish  adherence. 
To  counterfeit  a  coin  or  a  signature  would  be  a  crime. 


38  VOCABULARY. 

Immense— Big-. 

It  is  common  to  misuse  immense  for  big,  etc.  That  is 
immense  which  is  boundless  or  infinite ;  while  big  is  used 
in  a  much  more  restricted  sense.  It  is  accordingly  incor- 
rect to  speak  of  an  immense  house,  or  an  immense  city. 

Immodest— Indecent. 

The  distinction  between  these  adjectives  is  generally 
disregarded.  Both  indicate  immorality;  indecency,  by 
external  signs,  as  dress,  words,  looks;  immodesty,  by  con- 
duct and  disposition.  Hence,  indecency  is  a  weaker  word 
than  immodesty. 

Importance.     See  CONSEQUENCE. 
In — Into. 

In  is  often  erroneously  used  for  into;  as,  "  Let  us  go 
out  in  the  garden." 

Inaugurate— Begin. 

The  meaning  of  inaugurate  is  to  install  or  induct  into 
an  office  with  suitable  ceremonies.  It  should  not  accord- 
ingly be  used  as  though  it  were  synonymous  with  begin ; 
as,  "  I  shall  inaugurate  a  new  course  of  study."  While 
Webster  gives  this  definition  with  the  remark  "  recent," 
the  use  of  the  word  in  any  such  sense  is  condemned  by 
all  of  the  latest  and  best  critical  authorities,  and  ought  to 
be  carefully  avoided  by  all  students  of  pure  English. 

Incident.     See  CIRCUMSTANCE. 
Inconceivable— Incredible. 

That  which  cannot  be  conceived  or  imagined  is  incon- 
ceivable ;  that  which  cannot  be  credited  or  believed  is 
incredible.  The  inconceivable  is  not  necessarily  incred- 
ible, nor  is  the  incredible  likely  to  be  inconceivable.  The 


VOCABULARY.  39 

common  error,  however,  lies  in  misusing  inconceivable 
for  incredible.  The  correct  usage  is  illustrated  in  such 
expressions  as,  "  The  inconceivable  goodness  of  God ; " 
"  The  incredible  character  of  his  statements,"  etc. 

Increase— Grow. 

To  increase  is  either  a  gradual  or  an  instantaneous  act ; 
to  grow  is  a  gradual  process.  To  increase  is  either  a 
natural  or  an  artificial  process;  \jQgrow  is  always  natural. 
Increase  is  used  in  the  transitive  as  well  as  in  the  intransi- 
tive ;  but  grow  is  always  used  in  the  intransitive.  Money 
increases,  but  does  not  grow;  while  wheat  may  both  grow 
and  increase. 

Indices— Indexes.  * 

Algebraic  signs  are  indices ;  tables  of  contents  are  in- 
dexes. The  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  words  is 
sufficiently  clear,  still  it  is  not  uncommon  for  indices  to 
be  misused  for  indexes. 

Individual— Person. 

Individual  means,  etymologically,  that  which  cannot 
be  divided,  applies  to  any  one  object  among  the  many, 
and  is  opposed  to  the  whole,  or  that  which  is  divisible. 
Hence,  it  is  clearly  absurd  to  use  individual 'in  the  sense 
of  person;  as,  "I  saw  several  strange  individuals  in  the 
class-room." 

Indorse — Approve. 

The  use  of  indorse  in  the  sense  of  approve,  as,  "  I  do 
not  indorse  his  action,"  is  not  sanctioned  by  modern 
authorities,  and  is  a  clear  violation  of  the  genius  of  our 
language.  Such  expressions  as,  "  I  will  indorse  the  note," 
that  is  to  say,  write  my  name  upon  the  back  of  it, 
illustrate  the  correct  use  of  the  word. 


4O  VOCABULARY. 

Infamous— Scandalous. 

Infamous  applies  to  persons  and  things;  scandalous, 
only  to  things.  The  infamous  produces  greater  publicity, 
and  is  more  serious  in  its  nature,  than  the  scandalous.  A 
man  may  be  infamous ;  his  acts  scandalous. 

Inside— Interior. 

The  word  inside  may  be  applied  to  bodies  either  small 
or  large ;  while  interior  is  peculiarly  appropriate  to  bodies 
of  great  magnitude.  It  is  accordingly  proper  to  speak 
of  the  inside  of  a  nutshell  or  a  room ;  the  interior  of  a 
palace  or  a  cathedral. 

Instance.     See  EXAMPLE. 
Institute— Establish. 

The  act  of  instituting  includes  design  and  method; 
that  of  establishing  comprehends  the  idea  of  authority. 
To  institute  is  always  the  act  of  an  agent ;  to  establish  is 
sometimes  the  effect  of  circumstances.  Public-spirited 
citizens  institute  that  which  is  for  the  public  good;  com- 
merce between  countries  becomes  established  in  course 
of  time. 

Inter.     See  BURY. 

Intoxicate— See  DRUNK. 
Invent— Discover. 

The  author  of  any  new  combination  of  causes  or 
things,  invents ;  he  who  finds  something  which  has  al- 
ways existed,  but  was  previously  unknown,  discovers. 
Hence,  Galileo  invented  \\\z  telescope;  Newton  discovered 
the  law  of  gravitation. 

Irritate.     See  AGGRAVATE. 


VOCABULARY.  41 

Issue— Number. 

Between  these  words  there  is  not  the  slightest  similarity, 
still  issue  is  currently  misused  for  number;  as,  "I  read  it 
in  a  recent  issue  of  the  Chronicle." 


Jealousy — Envy. 

The  distinction  between  these  words  is  not  always 
observed.  Jealousy,  etymologically  defined,  signifies 
filled  with  a  burning  desire ;  envy  means  not  looking  at 
or  looking  at  in  a  contrary  direction.  Jealous  is  applica- 
ble to  bodies  of  men,  as  well  as  individuals;  envious,  to 
individuals  only.  Nations  are  jealous  of  any  interfer- 
ence in  their  commerce,  etc. ;  individuals  are  envious  of 
the  rank  and  wealth  of  one  another.  We  we  jealous  of 
what  is  our  own;  we  are  envious  of  what  is  another's. 
Jealousy  fears  to  lose  what  it  has;  envy  is  pained  at 
seeing  another  have  that  which  it  wants  for  itself.  Princes 
are  jealous  of  their  authority ;  courtiers  are  envious  of 
those  in  favor.  The  envious  man  sickens  at  the  sight  of 
enjoyment;  he  is  easy  only  in  the  misery  of  others. 
Jealousy,  according  to  its  object,  is  a  noble  or  an  ignoble 
passion ;  in  the  former  case  it  is  emulation  sharpened  by 
fear;  in  the  latter,  it  is  greediness  stimulated  by  fear. 
Envy  is  always  a  base  passion. 

Jeopardize— Jeopard. 

It  is  now  customary  to  v&z  jeopardize  instead  Q{  jeopard. 
VJ\\.\\e  jeopardize  is  not  literally  incorrect,  still  the  prefer- 


42  VOCABULARY. 

ence  should  be  given  to  jeopard.  Says  Professor  Math- 
ews,  "There  is  considerable  authority  for  this  word, 
[jeopardize]  which  is  beginning  to  supplant  the  good  old 
English  word  jeopard.  But  why  is  it  more  needed  than 
perilize,  hazardize?" 

Judgment — Discretion. 

Judgment  is  conclusive ;  discretion  is  intuitive.  Judg- 
ment acts  by  rule ;  it  admits  of  no  question  or  variation ; 
discretion  acts  according  to  circumstances.  Judgment 
requires  knowledge  and  actual  experience;  discretion 
requires  reflection  and  consideration.  Thus,  a  general 
exercises  his  judgment  in  the  disposition  of  his  army  and 
in  the  mode  of  attack,  but  uses  his  discretion  in  the 
choice  of  officers,  etc. 

Justice— Equity. 

Justice  is  founded  on  the  laws  of  society ;  equity,  on  the 
laws  of  nature.  Justice  is  a  written  or  prescribed  law ; 
equity  is  a  law  in  our  hearts,  conforming  to  no  rule  except 
circumstances,  and  deciding  by  the  consciousness  of 
right  and  wrong.  Justice  forbids  us  from  doing  wrong,, 
and  requires  us  to  repair  the  wrongs  which  we  have 
done  to  others;  while  equity  forbids  us  from  doing  to. 
others  what  we  would  not  have  them  do  to  us. 


K 

Keep— Preserve— Save. 

The  idea  of  having  in  one's  possession  is  common  to 
all  these  terms,  but  they  differ  somewhat  in  application. 


VOCABULARY.  43 

Things  are  kept  at  all  times;  preserved  under  circumstan- 
ces of  difficulty  and  danger ;  saved  at  the  moment  when 
threatened  with  destruction.  Thus,  the  shepherd  keeps 
his  flock,  by  simply  watching  over  it;  children  are  at 
times  preserved  amid  the  greatest  dangers;  things  are 
often  saved  from  burning  by  the  exertions  of  the  firemen. 

Kill— Murder— Slay. 

All  of  these  words  convey  the  idea  of  the  taking  of 
life.  Kill  is  the  general  and  indefinite  term ;  to  murder 
means  the  unlawful  and  deliberate  killing  of  a  human 
being ;  to  slay  is  to  kill  in  battle.  Killing  is  applicable 
to  all  that  has  life;  murder,  to  mankind  only;  slay,  most- 
ly to  men,  but  sometimes  to  the  lower  animals.  It  will 
thus  be  observed  that  the  killing  of  one  man  by  another 
is  not  necessarily  murder. 

Kind.     See  DESCRIPTION. 
Knowledge— Learning". 

Knowledge  is  a  general  term  which  signifies  simply  the 
thing  known ;  learning  is  that  species  of  knoivledge  de- 
rived from  schools,  or  through  the  medium  of  personal 
instruction.  Knowledge  admits  of  all  degrees,  and  is  the 
opposite  of  ignorance ;  learning  is  positively  a  high  degree 
of  knowledge.  We  may  acquire  knowledge  from  per- 
sonal experience;  learning,  from  books. 


Labyrinth— Maze. 

The  idea  of  intricacy  is  expressed  by  each  of  these 
words,  but  in  a  far  greater  sense  in  labyrinth  than   in 


44  VOCABULARY. 

maze.  Political  and  polemical  discussions  may  be  meta- 
phorically compared  to  a  labyrinth,  that  is,  a  mental  state 
of  confusion  from  which  we  are  unable  to  extricate  our- 
selves ;  maze,  on  the  contrary,  denotes  a  state  of  tempo- 
rary perplexity  into  which  the  mind  has  been  thrown  by 
unexpected  or  inexplicable  events.  Unless  great  care 
be  exercised  in  their  use,  these  terms  are  likely  to  be 
misapplied. 

Lady— Woman. 

The  prevalent  misuse  of  these  words  is  very  silly  and 
affected.  Lady  is  a  term  indicating  a  social,  mental,  or 
moral  superiority,  while  ivoman  merely  denotes  the  sex. 
All  ladies  are  women,  but  all  women  are  not  ladies.  A 
servant  styles  herself  a  lady,  and  says  that  her  mistress 
is  a  very  decent  sort  of  a  woman.  Many  appear  to  be 
under  the  misapprehension  that  a  sufficient  degree  of 
respect  is  not  implied  in  the  time-honored  and  noble  word 
woman. 

Large.     See  CAPACIOUS. 

Large— Quite. 

These  words  are  occasionally  confounded  and  mis- 
applied. Quite  relates  to  adjectives,  and  it  is  incorrect 
to  use  it  as  if  relating  to  a  noun.  In  the  sentence  "I 
shall  soon  inherit  quite  a  fortune,"  quite  qualifies  the  noun 
fortune,  and  is  accordingly  erroneous.  If  large  were  to 
be  inserted  before  the  word  "  fortune,"  so  as  to  make  the 
sentence  read :  "  I  shall  soon  inherit  quite  a  large  fortune," 
the  objection  to  the  use  of  quite,  which  is  then  made  to 
qualify  the  adjective  large,  instead  of  the  noun  fortune, 
would  be  removed. 

Lean— Meager. 

Lean  means  a  lack  of  fat  ;  meager  a  lack  of  flesh. 
The  lean  is  not  necessarily  meager ;  but  the  meager  is 


VOCABULARY.  45 

always  lean.  Animals,  as  well  as  men,  may  be  lean,  but 
men  only, are  meager.  Leanness  is  often  connected  with 
the  temperament ;  meagerness  is  the  result  of  starvation 

and  disease. 

Learn— Teach. 

To  learn  means  to  take ;  to  teach,  to  give  instruction. 
It  is  said  that  the  words  were  once  synonymous,  but  now 
the  difference  in  their  meaning  is  well  defined,  and  the 
use  of  learn  for  teacJi  in  such  expressions  as  "  I  will  learn 
you  the  art  of  multiplication,"  etc.,  is  no  longer  permis- 
sible. 

Learning".     See  KNOWLEDGE. 

Leave— Quit. 

An  appreciable  distinction  exists  between  these  words 
when  used  with  exactness.  A  man  may  leave  his  house 
for  a  short  time,  and  then  go  back  to  it,  but  when  we 
quit  a  place  it  is  with  the  intention  never  to  return. 
Leave  applies  to  persons  or  things;  quit,  to  things  only. 

Lengthy— Long-. 

In  such  phrases  as  "  a  lengthy  debate,"  the  word  lengthy 
is  objectionable,  and  should  be  superceded  by  long. 

Lenience— Leniency— Lenity. 

It  is  preferable  in  all  cases,  to  use  lenity  rather  than 
either  lenience  or  leniency.  Although  lenience  and  leniency 
are  recognized  by  both  Webster  and  Worcester,  they  do 
not  appear  to  be  etymologically  correct,  and  are  con- 
demned in  strong  terms  by  nearly  all  literary  critics.  Says 
Professor  Gould,  referring  to  leniency:  "  It  is  not  properly 
constructed,  and  it  is  not  needed." 

Less.     See  FEWER. 


46  VOCABULARY. 

Liberty.     See  FREEDOM. 

Lie— Lay. 

A  wide  confusion  prevails  relative  to  the  proper  use 
of  these  verbs.  Says  Crabb:  "To  lie  is  neuter,  and 
designates  a  state ;  to  lay  is  active,  and  denotes  an  action 
on  an  object;  a  thing  lies  on  the  table;  some  one  lays  it 
on  the  table ;  he  lies  with  his  fathers ;  they  laid  him  with 
his  fathers.  In  the  same  manner,  when  used  idiomatic- 
ally, we  say,  a  thing  lies  by  us  until  we  bring  it  into 
use ;  we  lay  it  by  for  some  future  purpose ;  we  lie  down 
in  order  to  repose  ourselves ;  we  lay  money  down  by  way 
of  deposit ;  the  disorder  lies  in  the  constitution ;  we  lay 
a  burden  upon  our  friends." 

Like.     See  As. 

Likely— Liable.    See  APT. 

Likewise.    See  ALSO. 

List— Catalogue. 

A  list  is  a  mere  record  of  names  ;  a  catalogue  is  a  sys- 
tematic list.  Thus  a  list  of  books  will  give  their  titles 
only,  regardless  of  any  plan  of  arrangement ;  while  a 
catalogue  implies,  in  addition  to  the  names,  a  systematic 
classification  and  arrangement. 

Lit— Lighted  -Alighted. 

Lit,  a  colloquialism,  is  often  misused  for  lighted;  as, 
"  the  gas  is  lit; "  also  for  aligJited;  as,  "  he  lit  upon  his 
feet" 

Loan— Lend. 

Both  of  these  verbs  have  a  recognized  existence  in  our 
literature,  but  loan  is  perhaps  obsolete,  and  its  use  should 
be  avoided  by  precise  writers  and  speakers.  It  is 


VOCABULARY.  47 

undoubtedly  far  better  usage  to  say,  "Lend  me  your  pen- 
cil," than  it  is  to  say,  "  Loan  me  your  pencil." 

Locate — Settle. 

The  use  of  locate  in  the  sense  of  settle  has  been  stig- 
matized as  an  "Americanism"  and  a  "vulgarism,"  and 
should  be  shunned.  Thus,  a  man  is  said  to  settle,  not  to 
locate,  in  California.  Locate  is  recognized,  in  the  diction- 
aries, as  a  neuter  verb,  with  the  remark  "  rarely  used." 

Love— Like. 

A  ludicrous  misapplication  is  often  made  of  these 
words.  "  Children,  love  and  obey  your  parents,"  illus- 
trates the  proper  use  of  love,  but  it  is  very  silly  to  say 
*'  I  love  roasted  turkey,"  etc.  Like  is  sufficiently  strong 
in  any  such  sense.  Men  may  be  said  to  love  God  and 
civil  and  religious  liberty  ;  but  they  like,  rather  than  love, 
books,  music,  pictures,  etc. 

Luxurious— Luxuriant. 

A  clear  distinction  is  now  drawn  between  these  words, 
which  are  so  frequently  confounded.  We  may  say,  with 
accuracy,  "  a  luxurious  table,"  "  luxurious  ease,"  "  a  lux- 
urious liver,"  etc.,  implying  an  indulgence  or  a  delight  in 
luxury;  but  the  use  of  luxuriant  is  restricted  to  the 
sense  of  rank  or  excessive  growth  or  production ;  as,  "the 
luxuriant  weeds,"  etc. 


M 

Male — Man. 

Male,  as  an  adjective,  signifies  pertaining  to  the  male, 
as  distinguished  from  the  female  sex.     It  applies  to  the 


48  VOCABULARY. 

lower  animals  as  well  as  to  human  beings.  A  mistaken 
idea  apparently  exists  that  male  applies  to  men  only; 
and  in  this  sense  the  w©rd  is  often  misapplied.  See 
FEMALE. 

Manner.    See  AIR. 

May.     See  CAN. 
Make— Try. 

In  such  sentences  as,  "  I  will  try  the  experiment,"  the 
word  try  is  improperly  used  for  make. 

Maze.     See  LABYRINTH. 

Meager.     See  LEAN. 

Mechanic.     See  ARTIST. 

Mistake— Mistaken. 

A  serious  philological  blunder  lies  in  the  popular 
misuse  of  these  words.  Mistake  means  to  take  amiss, 
and  is  equivalent  to  misjudge,  misapprehend,  miscon- 
ceive. "  I  do  not  make  any  mistake  as  to  your  inten- 
tions," means :  "Your  intentions  are  clear  tome  ;  I  do  not 
misapprehend  them."  Says  Arthur  to  Henry:  "  The  pop- 
ulation of  San  Francisco  is  500,000."  "You  are  mis- 
taken" answers  Henry;  "  it  is  only  250,000."  The  use  of 
mistaken  in  this  sense  is  clearly  erroneous,  and  should  be 
mistake.  Arthur  is  not  mistaken  ;  that  is  to  say,  misap- 
prehended by  Henry,  who  clearly  comprehends  and  de- 
nies his  (Arthur's)  assertion  about  the  population  of  San 
Francisco.  Henry  meant  what  he  did  not  say.  He  in- 
tended to  tell  Arthur,  "  You  mistake,  that  is  to  say,  you 
err,  misapprehend,  or  misjudge,  in  your  statement.  You 
make  the  number  too  high;  it  is  not  as  you  assert, 
500,000,  but  only  250,000." 


VOCABULARY.  49 

Modesty — Bashfulness. 

Modesty  is  a  principle  of  the  mind ;  bash  fulness^  a  state 
of  feeling.  Modesty  is  unassuming;  basJifulness  is  down- 
cast, timid,  and  awkward.  Modesty  is  desirable ;  bashful- 
ness  is  not. 

Money — Cash. 

Money  is  applied  to  everything  which  serves  as  a  circu- 
lating medium;  cash  is,  in  a  strict  sense,  used  for  coin 
only.  Hence  all  cash  is  money,  but  all  money  is  not  cash. 

Mood.     See  HUMOR. 
Most— Very— Almost. 

It  is  a  gross  and  inexcusable  error  to  use  rnosf,  the 
superlative  of  much,  for  very ;  as,  "  It  was  a  most  shock- 
ing accident."  Most  is,  besides,  widely  misused  for 
almost;  as,  "  He  comes  to  see  me  most  every  day." 

Murder.     See  KILL. 
Mute.     See  DUMB. 

Mutual — Common— Reciprocal. 

The  use  of  mutual  in  the  sense  of  common,  or  reciprocal, 
is  a  blunder  which  has  been  denounced  by  Dean  Alford 
and  many  other  critics.  "  Our  Mutual  Friend  "  is  the 
title  given  by  Dickens  to  one  of  his  novels.  Says  that 
eminent  scholar  Lord  Macaulay  :  "Miitual  friend  is  a 
low  vulgarism  for  common  friend."  Mutual  implies  recip- 
rocity of  sentiments  and  acts  between  two,  but  is  not 
directly  applicable  to  persons.  Thus  we  may  speak  of 
the  mutual  love  of  man  and  wife;  and  of  John,  as  the 
common  friend  of  James  and  Charles.  5 


50  VOCABULARY. 

N 

Named — Mentioned. 

In  such  expressions  as,  "  I  have  never  named  the  sub- 
ject to  him,"  named  is  improperly  used  for  mentioned. 

Near.     See  CONVENIENT. 
Necessary — Essential. 

Necessary  signifies  not  to  be  departed  from,  and  is  a 
general  and  an  indefinite  term.  The  essential  contains  that 
essence  or  property  which  cannot  be  omitted.  It  is  nec- 
essary for  men  to  die.  Exercise  is  essential  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  health.  There  is  an  essential  difference 
between  gold  and  silver.  Here  we  could  not  properly 
use  necessary  for  essential. 

Negligence— Neglect. 

Negligence  is  a  habit ;  neglect  is  an  act.  The  following 
sentences  illustrate  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  these 
words  :  "  His  negligence  was  the  source  of  all  his  misfor- 
tunes," "  By  his  neglect  he  lost  the  opportunity." 

Neighborhood—Vicinity. 

Neighborhood  means  the  place  which  is  nigh,  that  is, 
nigh  to  one's  habitation;  vicinity  primarily  means  the 
place  which  does  not  exceed  in  distance  the  extent  of  a 
village.  Neighborhood  refers  to  the  inhabitants,  or  to 
inhabited  places,  and  denotes  nearness  of  persons  to  each 
other,  or  to  objects ;  as,  a  populous  neighborhood,  }  ^icinity 
denotes  nearness  of  one  object  to  another,  whether  person 
or  thing;  as,  "Oakland  is  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Fran- 
cisco." 

Neither.     See  EITHER. 


VOCABULARY.  51 

Never.     See  EVER. 
New— Novel. 

New  and  novel  are  sometimes  used  indiscriminately. 
New  is  opposed  to  old,  novel  to  known ;  as,  a  neiv  house, 
a  novel  invention. 

No— Not. 

It  is  easy  to  misuse  these  two  little  words ;  as,  "  It 
makes  little  difference  whether  or  no  I  do  it."  Here  not 
should  be  used  for  no. 

Nominate— Name. 

To  nominate  is  to  mention  for  a  specific  purpose.  To 
name  is  to  mention  for  a  general  purpose.  Persons  only 
are  nominated ;  things,  as  well  as  persons,  are  named. 
To  be  nominated  is  a  public  act ;  to  be  named  is  gener- 
ally private.  To  be  nominated  is  always  an  honor  ;  to 
be  named  may,  according  to  circumstances,  be  either 
honorable  or  dishonorable. 

Nor— Or. 

These  conjunctions  are  often  confused.  Example:  "I 
can  neither  read  or  write."  In  this  sentence  or  is  incor- 
rectly used  for  nor. 

Noted— Notorious. 

As  adjectives,  these  terms  are  sometimes  misused ;  as, 
"  He  is  a  noted  criminal."  The  better  word  here  would 
be  notorious,  the  meaning  of  which  is  restricted  to  that 
which  is  bad ;  while  noted  may  be  used  in  either  a  good 
or  a  bad  sense. 

Novice.     See  AMATEUR. 

Number.    See  ISSUE. 


52  VOCABULARY. 

o 

Obligation.    See  DUTY. 
Observation— Observance. 

The  act  of  noting  is  called  observation;  that  of  keep- 
ing or  celebrating  is  called  observance.  The  difference 
in  the  meaning  of  these  words  is  clearly  illustrated  by 
such  phrases  as,  "the  acute  observation  of  the  detect- 
ive;" "the  religious  observance  of  the  Sabbath." 

Observe— Say. 

While  the  dictionaries  authorize  the  common  use  of 
these  words,  it  is  in  better  taste  to  restrict  the  employ- 
ment of  observe  to  its  primitive  signification  ;  namely,  to 
notice.  Hence  such  an  expression  as,  "  What  did  you 
observe?"  is  objectionable,  and  should  be,  "  What  did 
you  say  ?  " 

Occasion— Opportunity. 

The  occasion  is  that  which  determines  our  conduct,  and 
amounts  to  a  degree  of  necessity  ;  the  opportunity  is  that 
which  invites  to  action.  We  do  things  as  the  occasion 
requires,  or  as  the  opportunity  offers.  We  may  have  oc- 
casion to  write  a  letter  without  having  the  opportunity. 

Occur— Transpire. 

The  misuse  of  these  words  is  very  common.  Occur 
means  simply  to  take  place,  to  happen ;  transpire  to  leak 
out,  to  come  to  light.  Hence,  it  is  incorrect  to  say,  "  The 
annual  school  exhibition  transpired  last  week."  The 
proper  word  here  is  occurred.  But  transpire  is  correctly 
used  in  such  a  sentence  as,  "  The  proceedings  of  the  cau- 
cus have  not  yet  transpired'' 


VOCABULARY.  53 

Of— To.  * 

It  often  happens  that  these  prepositions  are  misapplied 
In  such  expressions  as,  "  It  is  a  quarter  to  10  o'clock." 
To  means  toward,  and  the  proper  word  to  use  in  such  a 
construction  is  of,  the  literal  meaning  of  which  is  out  of. 

Older.     See  ELDER. 

Only.     See  ALONE. 

Or.     See  NOR — AND. 

Ordinary— Common. 

A  distinction  may  be  thus  drawn  between  these  terms; 
what  is  common  is  done  by  many  persons ;  what  is  ordina- 
ry is  repeated  many  times.  Ordinary  has  to  do  with  the 
repetition  of  the  act ;  common,  with  the  persons  who  per- 
form it. 

Ought— Should. 

Both  of  these  words,  though  implying  obligation,  have 
different  shades  of  meaning.  OugJit  is  the  stronger  term. 
Thus  a  man  ouglit  to  be  honest ;  he  should  be  neat  in  his 
dress. 

Over— Under. 

These  words  have  various  meanings  besides  the  desig- 
nation of  mere  locality,  and  are  often  misapplied.  The 
terms  "  imder  oath,"  "  under  hand  and  seal,"  "  under 
arms,"  under  his  own  signature,"  etc.,  are  fully  established 
and  authorized  forms  of  expression,  which  do  not  con- 
cern the  relative  positions  of  the  persons  and  things 
indicated,  but  are  idiomatic.  Hence,  over  instead  of 
under 'his  own  signature,  is  an  unjustifiable  phrase,  despite 
the  fact  that  the  signature  is  really  at  the  bottom  of 
the  instrument  signed. 

Owing1.     See  DUE. 


54  -VOCABULARY. 

Own— Confess. 

The  verb  to  own  means  to  possess,  but  it  has  borrowed 
the  additional  and  objectionable  meaning  of  to  confess^ 
to  acknowledge ;  as,  "  He  owned  his  crime."  A  man 
owns  a  house,  but  confesses  a  larceny,  or  a  murder,  neither 
of  which  offenses  is  hardly  susceptible  of  ownership. 


Pair.     See  BRACE. 

Pale— Pallid— Wan. 

All  these  terms  denote  an  absence  of  color,  but  vary 
in  degree,  pallid  rising  upon  pale,  and  wan  upon  pallid. 
Paleness  in  the  countenance  may  be  temporary,  but  pal- 
lidness and  wanness  are  caused  by  sickness,  hunger,  or 
fatigue,  and  are  of  longer  duration. 

Palliate.     See  EXTENUATE. 
Paraphernalia— Trappings— Regalia. 

We  often  hear  paraphernalia  used  in  the  sense  of  trap- 
pings or  regalia;  as,  "The  Grand  Marshal  was  conspicuous 
in  his  gorgeous  paraphernalia"  The  word  is  derived 
from  the  Greek,  and  is  strictly  a  law  term,  meaning  what- 
ever the  wife  brings  with  her  at  marriage,  in  addition  to 
her  dower,  such  as  her  dresses  and  her  jewels.  Hence 
the  evident  absurdity  of  the  use  of  pharaphernalia  in  the 
sentence  cited. 


VOCABULARY.  55 

Partake— Eat, 

Partake,  meaning  to  take  a  part  of  in  common  with 
others,  to  participate,  is  often  affectedly  used  as  a  synonym 
of  eat.  It  is  correct  to  say  that  two  or  more  persons 
partake  of  dinner,  as  they  may  partake  of  anything  else. 
But,  for  the  individual  who  eats  alone,  to  say  he  partook  of 
refreshments  is  an  egregious  blunder. 

Partially— Partly. 

The  use  of  the  adverb  partially  for  partly,  although  it 
has  the  sanction  of  Webster,  is  obviously  incorrect.  "The 
case  in  court  has  been  partially  heard."  This  is  a  com- 
mon expression,  the  intended  meaning  of  which  is,  that 
the  case  has  been  heard  in  part,  or  partly  heard.  Par- 
tially heard,  denotes  that  it  was  heard  in  a  biased  or 
prejudiced  manner. 

Party— Person. 

Party,  a  collective  noun,  meaning  a  number  of  persons 
is  often  incorrectly  used  for  person  ;  as,  "  He  was  a  very 
agreeable  party''1 

Pass.     See  ADOPT. 

Patron— Customer. 

These  nouns  are  generally  used  indiscriminately.  A 
patron  is  a  virtual  benefactor ;  one  who  countenances, 
aids,  or  supports.  A  customer  is  a  purchaser,  or  buyer, 
who  expects  in  return  for  his  money  full  value  received. 
Hence  it  is  erroneous  for  a  merchant  to  say,  "  He  is  a 
patron  of  mine,"  when  he  means  simply  a  customer. 

People— Persons. 

The  meaning  of  people  is  a  body  of  persons  regarded 
collectively,  a  nation  ;  hence  the  obvious  inaccuracy  of 


56  VOCABULARY. 

the  expression,  "^[any  people  think  so."     Persons  is  pref- 
erable in  any  such  sense. 

Perfect.     See  EVERY. 
Perpetually— Continually. 

Perpetual  means  never  ceasing,  continuing  without  in- 
terruption ;  continual,  of  frequent  recurrence,  etc.,  with 
occasional  interruptions.  "  Indolent  pupils  are  perpet- 
ually failing  in  the  tasks  assigned  them."  Here  the 
proper  word  is  continually.  Time  is  perpetual ;  frequent 
disregard  of  our  duties  is  continual. 

Persons.     See  INDIVIDUALS. 

Persuasion— Sect— Denomination. 

Persuasion,  the  definition  of  which  should  be  plain  to 
every  one  who  speaks  English,  is  often  ludicrously  used 
in  the  sense  of  sect  or  denomination  ;  as,  "  He  is  of  the 
Methodist  persuasion" 

Philanthropist.     See  HUMANITARIAN. 
Plead— Pleaded. 

"  He  plead  not  guilty."  Pleaded,  not  plead,  consti- 
tutes the  imperfect  tense  and  the  perfect  participle  of  the 
verb  to  plead.  Hence,  in  the  example  quoted  the  correct 
word  is  pleaded. 

Plentiful.     See  BOUNTIFUL. 

Polite.     See  CIVIL. 

Portion— Part. 

The  distinction  between  these  words  is  usually  un- 
heeded. A  portion  is  a  part  assigned,  allotted,  or  set  aside 
for  a  special  purpose ;  part  has  a  less  limited  meaning. 
Hence,  we  may  say  correctly ;  "  In  what/w/  of  the  city  do 
you  live?"  "  What  portion  of  the  estate  do  you  inherit? " 


VOCABULARY.  57 

Post— Inform. 

The  misuse  of  post  for  inform  in  such  sentences  as,  "  I 
will  post  you  about  it,"  is  as  inelegant  as  it  is  inaccurate. 

Posture— Attitude. 

Each  of  these  words  has  its  appropriate  place,  and  one 
should  not  be  misapplied  for  the  other.  Posture  is  the 
mode  of  placing  the  body,  and  may  be  either  natural  or 
assumed.  Attitude  is  always  assumed,  and  is  intended 
to  display  some  grace  of  the  body,  or  some  affection  or 
purpose  of  the  mind.  Postures,  when  natural,  accommo- 
date themselves  to  the  convenience  of  the  body  ;  when 
assumed  they  may  be  either  serious  or  ridiculous. 

Praise— Applause. 

We  express  our  approbation  by  praise  and  applause. 
Praise  is  the  general,  applause,  the  specific  term.  Ap- 
plause springs  from  impulse,  while  praise  is  the  result  of 
reason  and  reflection. 

Precise.     See  ACCURATE. 

Predicate— Base— Found. 

Says  Professor  Gould,  concerning  these  much-abused 
words :  "  The  functions  of  the  etymological  family, 
•vi\\&\cz  predicate  descends,  are  limited  to  speaking,  saying, 
telling,  etc.  And  our  lexicographers  generally  agree  in 
so  limiting  the  definition  of  predicate  ;  namely,  to  say,  to 
affirm,  to  declare.  *  *  *  Ignorant  usage — and  very 
ignorant  usage  it  must  be — in  the  United  States  has  re- 
cently paraded  predicate  in  the  sense  of  to  found;  as,  His 
argument  was  predicated  on  the  assumption,  etc.  The 
word  is  used  in  that  sense  in  the  pulpit,  at  the  bar,  and 
of  course  in  novels  and  newspapers.  But 

>  c 


58  VOCABULARY. 

means  to  found,  than  it  means  to  build  or  to  destroy."  '  It 
is  thus  clear  that,  in  the  sense  criticised,  based  Q*  founded 
is  the  proper  word. 

Prejudice.    See  BIAS. 
Present— Introduce. 

To  place  in  the  presence  of  a  superior  is  to  present  ; 
to  bring  to  be  acquainted  is  to  introduce.  It  is  accord- 
ingly incorrect  to  say,  "  I  will  present  Mr.  Smith  to  Miss 
Jones."  A  foreign  Minister  is  properly  said  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  President  ;  but  ladies  and  gentlemen,  in 
social  life,  are  merely  introduced. 

Preserve    See  KEEP. 

Prevail.     See  ADOPT. 
Previous — Previously. 

The  adjective  previous  is  often  misused  for  the  adverb 
previously  ;  as,  <l  Previous  to  my  leaving  the  city  I  called 
upon  the  Mayor." 

Prey,     See  BOOTY. 

Promise.     See  ASSURE. 

Promptness.     See  ALACRITY. 

Propose— Purpose. 

A  general  lack  of  discrimination  appears  to  exist 
relative  to  the  use  of  these  verbs.  Propose  signifies  to 
put  forward,  to  offer  for  consideration  ;  hence,  a  proposal, 
a  proposition;  purpose,  on  the  contrary,  means  an  intent, 
a  design,  or  a  resolution.  The  impropriety  of  such  sen- 
tences as,  "  I  propose  to  write  an  essay  on  language  ;  "  "I 
propose  to  do  it  to-day ; "  etc.,  are  accordingly  self-evident. 


VOCABULARY.  59 

Proud— Vain. 

Many  seem  to  be  unaware  of  the  difference  in  the 
meaning  of  these  words.  Pride  is  self-esteem,  conceit, 
egotism.  Vanity  is  a  desire  for  the  esteem  of  others  ;  ap- 
probativeness.  Hence  the  proud  man  is  not  necessarily 
vain,  nor  the  vain  woman  necessarily  proud. 

Proven— Proved. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  such  expressions  as,  "  It 
has  been  proven  to  my  full  satisfaction."  The  use  of 
proven  is  said  to  be  a  Scotticism.  The  correct  word  in 
all  such  cases  is  proved. 

Provoke.     See  AGGRAVATE. 
Punish — Chastise. 

Punish  is  universal  in  its  application ;  chastisement  al- 
ways comes  from  a  superior  to  an  inferior  in  rank  or 
condition.  Thus,  children  are  chastised,  criminals  are 
punished. 


Q 


Quality— Property — Attribute. 

Quality  is  that  which  is  inherent  in  the  thing  and  co- 
existent ;  property  is  that  which  belongs  to  it  for  the  time 
being;  attribute  is  the  quality  which  is  assigned  to  any 
object.  The  quality  of  a  thing  can  not  be  altered  with- 
out altering  the  whole  thing;  property  may  be  given  to 
or  taken  from  bodies  without  destroying  their  identity; 
attributes  may  be  ascribed  at  discretion. 


60  VOCABULARY. 

Quantity— Number. 

Quantity  applies  to  a  collection  or  mass ;  number,  to 
individual  objects.  The  words  are  frequently  confound- 
ed ;  as,  "  He  had  a  large  quantity  of  books."  Here  quan- 
tity should  be  number. 

Quarrel.     See  IMBROGLIO. 
Question— Query. 

Inquiry  is  implied  by  both  of  these  words ;  but  a  ques- 
tion may  be  asked  for  a  reasonable  or  an  unreasonable 
cause,  while  a  query  is  generally  a  rational  inquiry.  Ques- 
tions are  thus  sometimes  put  from  mere  curiosity;  queries, 
for  the  sake  of  information. 

Quit.     See  LEAVE. 
Quite.     See  LARGE. 


R 

Raise— Increase. 

The  indiscriminate  use  of  these  words  is  common  ; 
raise,  meaning  to  lift  or  elevate  ;  increase,  to  make  or  be- 
come larger.  Example  :  A  landlord  may  raise  his  house, 
and  increase  the  rent.  To  say  that  he  raised  the  rent 

is  absurd. 

Raised— Reared. 

It  is  a  common  error  to  speak  of  children  being  raised 
instead  of  reared.  Corn  and  chickens  may  be  raised,  but 
boys  and  girls  are  reared. 


VOCABULARY.  6l 

Ray— Beam. 

Ray  is  indefinite  in  its  meaning,  and  may  mean  either 
a  large  or  small  quantity  of  light,  while  beam  can  be  ap- 
plied only  to  that  which  is  considerable.  We  speak  of 
the  rays  of  any  luminous  body;  of  the  beams  of  the  sun 
or  the  moon.  The  rays  of  the  sun  break  through  the 
clouds;  its  beams  are  scorching  at  noonday. 

Real— Very. 

It  is  common  to  misplace  real  in  the  sense  of  very ; 
as,  "  It  is  a  real  interesting  book."  Very  is  an  adverb  of 
degree,  while  real  is  an  adjective,  signifying  that  which 
actually  exists. 

Jiteason— Cause. 

Causes  are  natural ;  reasons  are  logical.  Causes  are 
for  things  ;  reasons  for  actions.  Causes  are  hidden,  or 
evident ;  reasons  are  true  or  false.  Cause  produces 
effects  ;  reason  produces  conclusions. 

Reciprocal.      See  MUTUAL. 
Recollect— Remember. 

Recollect,  the  recalling  to  the  mind  of  some  forgotten 
event,  should  not  be  confused  with  remember.  To  re- 
member \s  to  call  to  the  mind  that  which  has  once  been 
presented  to  it ;  while  to  recollect  is  to  remember  afresh, 
to  recall  with  an  effort  what  may  have  been  forgotten. 

Recommend— Advise. 

Recommend,  which  means  to  commend,  or  to  declare 
worthy  of  esteem,  is  often  erroneously  used  in  the  sense  of 
advise ;  as,  "  Resolved,  that  the  Governor  be  recommended 
to  call  an  extra  session  of  the  Legislature."  Here  advised 
would  be  the  better  word. 

Reduce.     See  DECIMATE. 


62  VOCABULARY. 

Refer.     See  ALLUDE. 
Refute— Confute. 

When  one  argument  is  neutralized  by  another,  it  is 
confuted;  when  an  assertion  is  proved  to  be  false,  it  is  re- 
futed. In  confuting,  we  prove  the  absurdity;  in  refuting 
we  prove  the  falsity  of  an  assertion.  Opinions,  etc.,  are 
confuted;  slanders,  insinuations,  etc.,  are  refuted. 

Regalia.     See  PARAPHERNALIA. 

Religion— Piety. 

Piety  is  a  much  broader  term  than  religion,  yet  each 
is  repeatedly  used  as  though  a  synonym  of  the  other. 

Remainder.     See  BALANCE. 

Remarkable.    See  CURIOUS. 
Rendition— Rendering-. 

It  is  a  very  awkward  mistake  to  use  rendition  for  ren- 
dering;  as,  "  Booth's  rendition  of  Hamlet  was  excellent." 
Rendition  means  a  surrender  ;  while  rendering  signifies  a 
translation,  or  version. 

Reply.     See  ANSWER. 

Reputation.     See  CHARACTER. 

Reserve— Reticence. 

Reserve  is  a  wider  and  less  definite  term  than  reticence. 
Reserve  implies  caution  and  secretiveness,  while  reticence 
means  little  more  than  silence. 

Residence.    See  HOME. 
Restive— Restless. 

Restive  means  inclined  to  rest,  stubborn,  unwilling  to 
go  ;  as,  "  a  restive  horse."  Restless,  on  the  contrary,  sig- 
nifies unquiet,  uneasy,  continually  moving.  But  restive 


VOCABULARY.  63 

is  now  generally  misused  in  the  sense  of  restless ;  as, 
"  He  became  restive  under  so  many  disappointments." 

Retort— Repartee. 

A  retort  is  an  ill-natured,  a  repartee,  a  smart  reply. 
The  retort  is  always  an  answer  to  a  censure ;  the  repartee 
is  commonly  an  answer  to  the  wit  of  another. 

Ride.     See  DRIVE. 
Ridiculous— Ludicrous. 

Ridiculous  includes  an  idea  of  contempt,  which  ludi- 
crous does  not.  The  ludicrous  is  found  in  circumstances 
which  excite  laughter,  but  are  not  disparaging  to  the  per- 
son laughed  at.  Persons  are  ridiculous  when  they  do  or 
say  that  which  excites  our  laughter,  mixed  with  con- 
tempt. 

Rise.     See  APPRECIATE. 

Row.     See  IMBROGLIO. 


S 

Said— Allowed. 

It  is  bad  taste  as  well  as  bad  English  to  use  allowed 
in  the  sense  of  said.  Example:  "He  allowed  that  he 
would  rather  die  than  be  guilty  of  such  an  act"  To  al- 
low signifies  to  admit,  concede,  or  make  abatement. 
We  may  accordingly  say,  "  He  allowed  the  truth  of  my 
statement ; "  but  it  would  be  in  better  taste  to  say,  "  he 
conceded,"  or  "  he  admitted." 


64  VOCABULARY. 

Save.     See  KEEP. 

Say.     See  OBSERVE. 

Scandalous.     See  INFAMOUS. 

Scarcely.     See  HARDLY. 

Scholar— Pupil. 

A  clear  difference  exists  in  the  meaning  of  these  terms. 
A  scholar  is  one  who  is  learned  ;  as,  "  He  was  a  profound 
scholar"  Pupil  implies  one  who  is  learning,  a  student. 
Hence  it  is  objectionable  to  speak  of  the  scholars  attending 
a  school. 

Scrupulous.     See  CONSCIENTIOUS, 

Sect.     See  PERSUASION. 

Seem.     See  APPEAR. 

Separate.     See  DIVIDE. 

Set— Sit. 

The  misuse  of  set  for  sit  is  very  general ;  as,  "  Will  you 
not  set  down  for  a  moment  ?  "  "  The  hen  is  setting."  We 
may  say  with  propriety,  "  the  setting-  sun  ;  "  but  human 
beings  sit,  and  do  not  set. 

Settle.     See  LOCATE. 

Severe.     See  CONDIGN. 

Shall— Will. 

.  Perhaps  no  two  words  in  the  language  are  more  widely 
misused  than  shall  and  will ;  as,  "  I  will  drown  and  no- 
body shall  help  me,"  as  was  said  by  the  foreigner  who  fell 
into  the  river.  Sir  E.  W.  Head,  in  a  little  treatise  on 
"  Shall  and  Will,"  thus  states  the  rule  for  the  use  of  these 
auxiliary  verbs  : 

"  Will  in  the  first  person  expresses  a  resolution,  or  a 
promise  ;  as,  I  will  not  go — It  is  my  resolution  not  to  go ; 
I  will  give  it  you — I  promise  to  give  it  you. 


VOCABULARY.  65 

"  Will  in  the  second  person  foretells  ;  as,  If  you  come 
at  12  o'clock  you  will  find  me  at  home.  Will  in  the 
second  person,  in  questions,  anticipates  a  wish,  or  an  in- 
tention ;  as,  Will  you  go  to-morrow  ?  Is  it  your  wish, 
or  intention,  to  go  to-morrow  ? 

"  Will  in  the  third  person  foretells,  generally  implying 
also  intention  ;  as,  He  will  come  to-morrow,  signifies 
what  is  to  take  place,  and  an  intention. 

"  SJiall  in  the  first  person  foretells,  simply  expressing 
what  is  to  take  place  ;  as,  I  shall  go  to-morrow.  No  in- 
tention or  desire  is  expressed  by  shall.  Shall  in  the 
first  person,  in  questions,  asks  permission;  as,  Shall  I 
read  ? — Do  you  wish  me,  or,  Will  you  permit  me  to  read  ? 

"  Shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons  expresses  a 
promise,  a  command,  or  a  threat ;  as,  You  shall  have 
these  books  to-morrow — I  promise  to  let  you  have  these 
books  to-morrow  ;  Thou  shalt  not  steal — I  command 
thee  not  to  steal.  He  shall  be  punished  for  this;  I 
threaten,  or  promise,  to  punish  him  for  this  offense." 

Should.     See  OUGHT. 

Should— Would. 

Like  shall  and  will,  the  use  of  should  &s\d  would  is  sur- 
rounded by  confusion.  Should  is  subject  to  the  same 
rules  as  shall,  and  frequently  expresses  duty;  as,  "You 
should  not  do  so,"  meaning,  it  is  your  duty  not  to  do  so. 
The  rules  relative  to  the  use  of  will  are  also  applica- 
ble to  would,  which  is  often  used  to  express  a  custom : 
as,  "  He  would  often  talk  about  these  things,"  that  is  to 
say,  it  was  his  custom  to  talk  about  these  things. 

Sick.     See  ILL.  c 


66  VOCABULARY. 

Signalize— Signal. 

Says  the  author  of  "  Vulgarisms :"  "  To  signal  was  for- 
merly employed  as  descriptive  of  the  telegraphing  be- 
tween vessels  at  sea.  To  signalize  is  a  substitute  which 
has  gained  favor  chiefly  since  that  time.  To  signalize 
should  be  reserved  for  the  expression  of  the  idea  of  one's 
distinguishing  one's  self  by  some  glorious  deed,  or  for 
that  of  an  action's  enhancing  the  brilliancy  of  any  attri- 
bute, or  lesser  quality  possessed  by  man ;  as,  *  Horatius 
Codes  signalized  himself  by  the  exploit  of  defending, 
single-handed,  the  bridge  over  which  Porsenna's  army 
was  endeavoring  to  advance.'  " 

Silent— Taciturn. 

Between  the  meaning  of  these  words  there  is  a  clear 
distinction.  Silence  has  reference  to  the  act ;  taciturnity, 
to  the  habit ;  a  man  may  be  silent  from  circumstances ; 
he  is  taciturn  from  disposition.  Thus,  a  silent  man  does 
not  speak,  while  a  taciturn  man  will  not  speak.  The  lo- 
quacious man  is  at  times  silent ;  while  the  taciturn  man 
may  occasionally  make  an  effort  at  conversation. 

Sin.     See  CRIME. 
Since— Ago. 

Following  is  the  rule  given  by  Dr.  Johnson  for  the  use 
of  these  adverbs :  "  Reckoning  time  toward  the  present,  we 
use  since ;  as,  '  It  is  a  year  since  it  happened:'  reckoning 
from  the  present,  we  use  ago;  as,  'It  is  a  year  ago'" 
This  rule  does  not  always  appear  to  be  applicable.  Since 
is  often  used  for  ago,  but  ago  never  for  since.  Ago,  which 
is  always  an  adverb,  is  derived  from  the  participle  agone, 
while  since  maybe  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  a  conjunc- 
tion. 


VOCABULARY.  6/ 

Slay.     See  KILL. 

So.     See  As. 
Social—  Sociable. 

These  words  are  often  used  in  a  wrong  sense.  Per- 
sons formed  for  society  are  social  ;  those  who  are  in 
active  intercourse  with  their  fellow-creatures  are  sociable. 
Social  refers  to  the  natural  quality  of  persons  to  congre- 
gate together,  and  live  in  society.  Sociable  refers  to  the 
particular  inclination  of  some  to  be  in  continual  inter- 
course with  their  friends  and  acquaintances.  Man  is  a 
social  animal,  but  all  men  are  not  sociable. 

Soil.     See  DIRT. 
Some—  Somewhat. 

"  He  studies  some  every  day."  In  this  and  all  similar 
expressions,  some  is  misused  for  somewhat. 

Sort.     See  DESCRIPTION. 

Spread—  Circulate. 

Says  Crabb:  "To  spread  is  to  extend  to  an  indefinite 
width;  to  circulate  is  to  spread  within  a  circle;  thus, 
news  spreads  through  a  country,  but  a  story  circulates 
in  a  village,  or  from  house  to  house,  or  a  report  is  circu- 
lated in  a  neihborhood." 


Stopping-—  Staying1. 

Stopping  and  staying  arc  not,  as  is  generally  supposed, 
strictly  synonymous.  To  stop  is  to  cease  to  go  forward, 
to  bring  progress  to  an  abrupt  termination  ;  to  stay  is  to 
tarry,  to  abide.  Consequently  it  is  incorrect  to  say, 
"  Senator  Miller  is  stopping  at  the  Palace  Hotel."  We 
may  say,  "  I  stopped  for  an  instant,"  but  strictly  speaking, 
the  pause  cannot  have  longer  duration.  It  is  convenience 


68  VOCABULARY. 

that  dictates  a  modification  of  the  meaning  of  the  word,, 
and  permits  of  such  expressions  as,  "  I  shall  stop  for  an 
hour  or  two."  But  if  a  longer  time  is  meant,  stay  is  the 
proper  word. 

Strange.      See  CURIOUS. 

Strong— Robust. 

The  distinction  in  the  meaning  of  these  words  may  be 
thus  defined  :  Robust  is  a  positive  and  high  degree  of 
strength,  arising  from  a  peculiar  bodily  make.  A  man 
may  be  strong  by  virtue  of  his  constitution,  from  power 
inherent  in  his  frame  ;  but  a  robust  man  has  strength 
from  the  size  and  texture  of  his  body,  and  bone  and 
nerve  endowed  with  great  power.  One  may  be  strong 
in  one  part  of  the  body  and  weak  in  others  ;  but  a  robust 
man  is  strong  in  his  whole  body  ;  and  as  he  is  robust  by 
nature,  he  will  cease  to  be  so  only  from  disease.  A  little 
man  maybe  strong,  although  not  robust ;  but  a  tall,  stout 
man  in  full  health  may  be  termed  robust. 

Suavity— Urbanity. 

Suavity  literally  denotes  sweetness  ;  urbanity,  the  re- 
finement of  the  city  in  distinction  from  the  country. 
Suavity  may,  sometimes,  arise  from  natural  temper,  and 
exist  without  urbanity ;  but  there  cannot  be  urbanity 
without  suavity.  Urbanity  of  manner  makes  us  agree- 
able companions  ;  suavity  wins  us  the  love  of  our  asso- 
ciates. Suavity  may  be  applied  to  the  voice,  or  the 
style  ;  but  urbanity,  to  manners  only. 

Subsequent.     See  FUTURE. 

Such— So. 

SucJi  is  misused  for  so  in  such  expressions  as,  "  I  never 
saw  sucJi  a  high  spire."  The  meaning  which  is  here 


VOCABULARY.  69 

intended  is,  "  I  never  saw  so  high  a  spire ; "  but,  in  the 
form  criticised,  the  idea  conveyed  is,  "  I  never  saw  a 
high  spire  of  suck  a  form,  or  of  suck  architecture." 

Sufficient.    See  ENOUGH. 
Superior— Able— Excellent. 

It  is  wrong  to  make  use  of  superior  in  the  sense  of  able, 
or -excellent ;  as,  "  He  is  a  superior  man,"  meaning  an  able 
man ;  "  It  was  a  superior  dinner,"  meaning  an  excellent 
dinner. 

Suppose.     See  CONSIDER — EXPECT. 

System— Method. 

System  is  a  more  comprehensive  term  than  metJiod, 
signifying  an  arrangement  of  objects  in  accordance  with 
some  given  rule ;  method,  means  simply  the  manner  of 
this  arrangement.  System  applies  to  a  complexity  of 
objects;  method,  to  everything  that  is  to  be  put  into  exe- 
cution. All  business  requires  method ;  all  sciences  must 
.be  reduced  to  system. 


Taciturn.     See  SILENT. 
Take— Receive— Accept. 

To  take  is  the  general  term ;  receive  and  accept  are  modes 
of  taking.  We  take  whatever  comes  in  the  way;  we  re- 
ceive only  that  which  is  offered,  or  sent ;  we  take  a  book 
from  a  table ;  we  receive  a  parcel,  which  has  been  sent. 
To  receive  is  frequently  a  passive  act;  but  to  accept  is  an 


70  VOCABULARY. 

act  of  choice ;  many  things  accordingly  may  be  received 
which  cannot  be  accepted;  as,  a  person  receives  a  blow,  or 
an  insult,  but  accepts  an  apology.  We  take  either  with  or 
without  consent ;  we  receive  with  the  consent,  or  accord- 
ing to  the  wishes  of  another.  Hence,  a  robber  takes 
money;  we  receive  letters.  Animals  and  things,  as  well 
as  persons,  may  take;  things  may  receive,  but  persons,, 
only,  accept. 

Take.     See  GET. 

Talent— Genius. 

Genius,  which  is  essentially  creative  and  imaginative, 
is  inborn,  and  denotes  the  highest  form  of  intellect ;  while 
talent,  which  does  not  originate,  but  rather  imitates,  is  a 
particular  phase  of  the  intellect,  enabling  its  possessor  to 
do  some  things  better  than  others,  and  with  more  than 
average  skill.  Talent  implies  unusual  cleverness  and 
ability ;  as,  a  talented  historian,  a  talented  actor.  Genius 
is  higher  than  talent  and  very  rare.  Shakespeare,  Mozart, 
and  Napoleon  were  men  of  genius ;  Gibbon,  Pitt,  and 
Talleyrand  were  men  of  talent.  Genius  exercises  the 
imagination;  talent,  the  memory. 

Tameness.     See  GENTLENESS. 

Teach.     See  LEARN. 
Testimony.     See  EVIDENCE. 

That.     See  BUT— How. 
Think.     See  CONSIDER — EXPECT 

To.     See  AND — OF. 
Trade — Commerce. 

Trade  is  either  on  a  large  or  small  scale,  and  implies 
the  carrying  on  of  business  for  purposes  of  gain;  com- 
merce is  always  on  a  large  scale,  and  is  trade  between 


VOCABULARY.  71 

different  countries.  Hence,  trade  may  be  carried  on  be- 
tween San  Francisco  and  Sacramento ;  commerce,  between 
America  and  England. 

Transpire.    See  OCCUR. 

Trapping's.     See  PARAPHERNALIA. 

Truth— Ve  racity. 

Truth  relates  to  things;  veracity,  to  persons.  Thus 
we  say:  "The  tmtJi  of  the  story  was  accepted  upon  the 
veracity  of  the  narrator." 

Try.     See  MAKE. 


U 

Ugly— Ill-Tempered. 

The  use  of  ugly  for  ill-tempered,  while  sanctioned  by 
the  dictionaries,  is  always  ambiguous  ;  as,  "  He  is  an 
ugly  man."  It  is  impossible  to  determine  from  the  word- 
ing of  this  sentence  whether  the  man  is  ill-favored,  or 
hateful.  In  England,  where  the  meaning  of  ugly  is  re- 
stricted to  ill-favored,  the  sense  would  be  clear. 

Unbelief— Infidelity. 

The  distinction  in  the  meaning  of  these  words  is  not 
always  appreciated.  Unbelief  is  taken  in  an  indefinite 
and  negative  sense,  and  does  not  convey  any  reproachful 
meaning  ;  it  signifies  a  general  disposition  not  to  believe  ; 
the  lack  of  belief.  Infidelity  is  a  more  active  state  of 
mind  ;  it  supposes  a  violent  and  total  rejection  of  that 


72  VOCABULARY. 

which  ought  to  be  believed.  We  may  be  unbelievers  in 
either  a  trivial  or  a  serious  sense,  but  the  term  unbeliever, 
taken  absolutely,  means  one  who  disbelieves  sacred 
truths.  Hence  the  Jews  are  said  to  be  imbelievers  in  the 
mission  of  our  Saviour.  The  Turks,  who  do  not  believe 
in  the  bible,  are  infidels ;  as  are  also  deists  and  atheists. 

Under.    See  OVER. 

Universal.     See  GENERAL. 

Universe— World. 

World  is  often  absurdly  employed  for  universe.  World, 
in  its  general  application,  means  the  earth  and  its  inhab- 
itants ;  while  universe  includes  all  created  things  as  a 
whole  ;  not  only  our  entire  solar  system,  but  all  fixed 
stars  and  planets.  It  is  accordingly  a  palpable  error  to 
say,  "It  is  not  within  the  power  of  any  man  in  the  uni- 
verse? 

Unless.     See  EXCEPT. 

Untruth— Lie. 

Between  these  words  there  is  a  decided  difference. 
An  untrue  saying,  be  it  intentional  or  accidental,  is  an 
untruth,  and,  of  itself,  reflects  no  disgrace  on  the  agent. 
A  lie  is  a  false  saying,  uttered  only  with  intention  to  de- 
ceive. Children  are  likely  to  speak  untruths  through  a 
misconception  of  the  weight  of  words  ;  while  a  dishonest 
tradesman  lies  to  his  customer. 

Unwarranted.     See  GRATUITOUS. 
Upon— On. 

Graham  says  of  these  words :  "  The  preposition  upon 
is  often  used  synonymously  with  on,  though  it  would  be 
more  correct  to  employ  it  only  when  the  lower  substance 


VOCABULARY.  73 

of  the  two  is  raised  considerably  from  the  floor  to  the 
earth.  According  to  this  distinction  we  speak  of  an  ob- 
ject lying  on  the  floor,  but  we  place  something  upon  a  shelf." 

Urbanity.     See  SUAVITY. 
Use.     See  EMPLOY. 


Value— Worth. 

It  is  customary  to  misuse  these  words.  The  ivorth  of 
an  article  is  judged  by  its  real  merits  ;  while  its  value  is 
determined  by  the  price  for  which  it  could  be  sold. 
Worth  is  permanent,  value  is  changeable  ;  as,  a  man  of 
zvortJi  ;  a  watch  of  value. 

Vacant.     See  EMPTY. 

Vain.     See  PROUD. 
Venal— Mercenary. 

While  there  is  little  difference  in  their  meaning,  venal 
is  a  stronger  word  than  mercenary.  Venal  signifies 
salable,  or  ready  to  be  sold ;  mercenary,  moved  by  con- 
siderations of  pay  or  profit,  greediness  of  gain.  Thus 
we  say,  a  venal  writer,  or  a  mercenary  soldier. 

Veracity.    See  TRUTH. 
Verbal— Oral. 

The  meaning  of  these  words  is  often  misapprehended. 
Verbal  means  couched  in  words,  spoken  or  written ; 
while  oral  implies  delivery  by  word  of  mouth. 


74  VOCABULARY. 

Very.     See  AWFUL — REAL — MOST. 

Vice.     See  CRIME. 

Vicinity.     See  NEIGHBORHOOD. 

Vocation.     See  AVOCATION. 


W 

Wan.     See  PALE. 
Well—  Good. 

Good  should  not  be  employed,  as  it  frequently  is,  in 
the  sense  of  well.  While  good  is  always  an  adjective, 
well  is  generally  an  adverb,  and  is  used  as  an  adjective 
only  when  it  signifies  good  in  condition  or  circumstances,, 
or  sound  in  body.  Good  is  erroneously  used  for  ivell  in 
the  following  sentence:  "  He  played  the 


Wharf.     See  DOCK. 

Whiten.     See  BLANCH. 

Whole.     See  ALL. 

Whole—  Entire—  Complete—  Total. 

Due  discrimination  is  not  usually  shown  in  the  use  of 
these  seemingly  synonymous  terms.  That  is  whole  from 
which  nothing  has  been  taken  ;  that  is  entire  which  has 
not  been  divided  ;  that  is  complete  which  has  all  its  parts, 
and  total  refers  to  the  aggregate  of  the  parts  ;  as,  a  whole 
loaf  of  bread  ;  an  entire  set  of  spoons;  a  complete  harness; 
the  total  cost  or  expense. 


VOCABULARY.  75 

Wholesome.     See  HEALTHY. 
Will.     See  SHALL. 

Win— Gain. 

Possession  is  implied  by  each  of  these  words,  but  we 
gain  with  intention;  we  win  by  chance.  We  win,  not 
gain  a  prize  in  a  lottery,  and  by  close  attention  to  busi- 
ness we  gain  wealth. 

Wit— Humor. 

The  difference  in  the  meaning  of  these  words  is  not 
generally  appreciated.  Wit  denotes  the  power  of  seizing 
on  some  thought  or  occurrence,  and,  by  a  sudden  turn, 
presenting  it  under  aspects  wholly  new  and  unexpected, 
and  bearing  on  the  subject  with  a  laughable  keenness 
and  force.  Humor  is  a  quality  more  congenial  than  wit, 
which  gives  to  ideas  a  wild  or  fantastic  turn,  and  tends 
to  excite  laughter  by  sudden  and  incongruous  images  or 
representations.  While  wit  may  wound,  humor  does  not, 
and  has  thus  far  less  of  the  satirical  in  its  mirth. 

With.     See  BY. 

Without— Unless. 

Without  is  often  improperly  used  for  unless;  as,  "  I 
shall  not  go  without  you  accompany  me." 

Woman.     See  FEMALE. 
World.     See  UNIVERSE. 

Worth.     See  VALUE. 

Would.     See  SHOULD. 


76  VOCABULARY. 


Youthful — Juvenile— Puerile. 

Youth/ill  and  juvenile  signify  full  of  youth,  and  are 
taken  in  an  indifferent  sense,  but  puerile  means  boyish, 
and  applies  to  what  is  suitable  to  a  boy  only.  We  thus 
speak  of  youtJiful  vigor,  juvenile  performances,  etc.,  but 
puerile  objections,  puerile  conduct,  and  the  like,  the  word 
here  being  used  in  a  disparaging  sense. 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 


The  distinction  in  the  meaning  of  words  legitimate  in 
themselves,  but  commonly  used  in  a  wrong  sense,  has 
been  shown  in  the  "Vocabulary,"  and  we  now  come  to 
a  consideration  of  the  laws  governing  the  correct  use  of 
spoken  and  written  language.  For  the  sake  of  simplicity 
and  convenience,  we  shall,  in  this  section  of  our  work, 
treat  of  the  principles  of  grammar  with  special  reference 
only  to  that  which  is  pertinent  and  practical. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of 
speaking  and  writing  the  language  with  correctness.  It 
is  divided  into  four  parts  ;  namely,  OrtJwgrapJiy,  Etymol- 
ogy, Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

ORTHOGRAPHY  treats  of  letters,-  syllables,  separate 
words,  and  spelling. 

ETYMOLOGY  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech, 
with  their  classes  and  modifications. 

SYNTAX  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government, 
and  arrangement  of  words  in  sentences. 

PROSODY  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and 
versification. 

Such  are  the  commonly  accepted  definitions,  but  or- 
thography is  now  the  special  province  of  spelling-manuals, 
and  prosody  belongs  rather  to  the  study  of  rhetoric,  so 
that  the  scope  of  grammar  is  virtually  narrowed  to 
etymology  and  syntax.  It  is  in  these  departments  that 
we  are  taught  the  relative  rank  of  words^  ancMiow  to 
arrange  them  in  sentences. 


79 


80  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

The  parts  of  speech  are  ten  in  number,  and  may  be 
defined  as  follows : 

ARTICLE.  There  are  but  three  articles,  tJie,  an,  and  a, 
which  are  placed  before  nouns  to  limit  their  signification ; 
as,  the  air ;  the  stars ;  an  island ;  a  ship. 

NOUN.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or 
thing;  as,  James,  California,  man,  apple,  ttuth. 

ADJECTIVE.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun 
or  pronoun,  and  generally  expresses  quality;  as,  a  wise 
man ;  a  new  book ;  you  are  studious. 

PRONOUN.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a 
noun ;  as,  "  The  boy  loves  his  book ; "  "He  has  a  hard 
task,  and  he  does  it  well." 

VERB.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or 
to  be  acted  upon;  as,  I  am;  I  walk;  I  am  ruled;  I  love. 

PARTICIPLE,  A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a 
verb,  participating  in  the  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an 
adjective  or  a  noun,  and  is  generally  formed  by  adding 
ing,  d,  or  ed  to  the  verb;  thus,  from  the  verb  rule,  are 
formed  three  participles — two  simple  and  one  compound ; 
as,  ruling,  ruled,  having  ruled. 

ADVERBS.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb, 
a  participle,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb,  and  generally 
expresses  time,  place,  degree,  or  manner ;  as,  "  They  are 
now  here,  studying  very  diligently'' 

CONJUNCTION.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to 
connect  words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  and  to  show  the 
dependence  of  the  terms  so  connected ;  as,  "  You  and  I 
are  rich  because  we  are  industrious." 

PREPOSITION.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  ex- 
press some  relation  of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  one 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  8l 

another,  and  is  generally  placed  before  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun ;  as,  "  The  book  lies  before  me  on  the  table." 

INTERJECTION.  An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to 
indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion ;  as,  oh!  ah!  alas ! 

THE  ARTICLES  are  distinguished  as  the  Definite  and 
the  Indefinite. 

THE  DEFINITE  ARTICLE  is  the,  which  denotes  some 
particular  object  or  objects;  as,  //feboy;  //^oranges. 

THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE  is  an  or  a,  which  denotes 
one  thing  of  a  kind,  but  not  any  particular  one;  as,  a 
boy;  an  orange. 

NOUNS  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  Proper 
and  Common. 

A  PROPER  NOUN  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
individual,  people,  or  group;  as,  Adam,  San  Francisco, 
the  Mississippi,  the  Greeks,  the  West  Indies,  the  Sierras. 

A  COMMON  NOUN  is  the  name  applicable  to  any  one 
of  a  class  of  beings  or  things  ;  as,  beast,  bird,  fish,  insect, 
creature,  person,  children. 

Nouns  have  four  modifications :  namely,  Person,  Num- 
ber, Gender,  and  Case. 

There  are  three  persons:  the  First,  the  Second,  and  the 
Third. 

THE  FIRST  PERSON  denotes  the  speaker,  or  writer;  as, 
"  I,  Henry,  have  spoken." 

THE  SECOND  PERSON  denotes  the  hearer,  or  the  per- 
son addressed ;  as,  "  William,  who  called  me  ? " 

THE  THIRD  PERSON  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of;  as,  "  James  is  small." 

NUMBERS  are  modifications  which  distinguish  unity 
and  plurality,  and  are  either  Singular  or  Plural. 

THE  SINGULAR  NUMBER  denotes  but  one;  as,  "The 
boy  learns."  7 


82  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

THE  PLURAL  NUMBER  denotes  more  than  one;  as, 
"The  girls  learn."  It  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  s  or 
es  to  the  singular;  as,  book,  books ;  box,  boxes. 

GENDERS  are  modifications  of  nouns  or  pronouns 
which  distinguish  them  in  regard  to  sex,  and  are  four  in 
number;  viz.,  the  Masculine,  the  Feminine,  the  Common, 
and  the  Neuter. 

THE  MASCULINE  GENDER  denotes  persons  or  animals 
of  the  male  kind ;  as,  man,  lion. 

THE  FEMININE  GENDER  denotes  persons  or  animals 
of  the  female  kind ;  as,  woman,  lioness. 

THE  COMMON  GENDER  denotes  either  males  or  fe- 
males ;  as,  children,  cattle. 

THE  NEUTER  GENDER  denotes  things  without  sex;  as, 
table,  garden,  house. 

CASES  distinguish  the  relations  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
to  other  words,  and  are  three  in  number;  namely,  the 
Nominative,  the  Possessive,  and  the  Objective. 

THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE  usually  denotes  the  subject 
of  a  finite  verb;  as,  "/could  walk;"  "He  runs." 

THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE  generally  denotes  the  relation 
of  property;  as,  "the  boy's  hat." 

THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE  commonly  denotes  the  object 
of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition ;  as,  "  I  know  the  boy" 

ADJECTIVES  are  divided  into  six  classes;  namely, 
Common,  Proper,  Numeral,  Pronominal,  Participle,  and 
Compound. 

A  COMMON  ADJECTIVE  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or  ad- 
jective, denoting  quality  or  situation ;  zs,good,  bad, peaceful. 

A  PROPER  ADJECTIVE  is  formed  from  a  proper  name ; 
as,  American,  English. 

A  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVE  expresses  a  definite  number; 
-as,  one,  two,  tJuee,  fifty,  etc. 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  83 

A  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVE  is  a  definite  word,  which 
may  either  accompany  its  noun  or  represent  it;  as,  "All 
join  to  guard  what  each  desires  to  gain."  Here  men  is 
understood  after  all,  and  man  after  each. 

A  PARTICIPLE  ADJECTIVE  has  the  form  of  a  participle, 
but  differs  from  it  by  rejecting  the  idea  of  time ;  as,  an 
amusing  story. 

A  COMPOUND  ADJECTIVE  consists  of  two  or  more 
words  joined  together;  as,  laughter-loving,  four-footed. 

ADJECTIVES  have  three  degrees  of  comparison ;  name- 
ly, the  Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

THE  POSITIVE  DEGREE  is  expressed  by  the  adjective 
in  its  simple  form ;  as,  hard,  soft. 

THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE  exceeds  the  positive,  and 
is  generally  formed  by  adding  er  to  the  positive;  as, 
harder,  softer. 

THE  SUPERLATIVE  DEGREE  is  not  exceeded,  and  is 
generally  formed  by  adding  est  to  the  positive;  as,  hard- 
est, softest. 

ADJECTIVES  such  as  two,  second,  all,  total,  immortal, 
infinite,  cannot  be  compared. 

ADJECTIVES  that  may  be  varied  in  sense,  but  not  in 
form,  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbs;  as,  skillful, 
more  skillful,  most  skillful. 

PRONOUNS  are  divided  into  five  classes;  namely,  Per- 
sonal, Demonstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Pos- 
sessive. 

A  PERSONAL  PRONOUN  shows  by  its  form  of  what 
person  it  is.  There  are  five :  /,  tliou,  he,  she,  and  it. 

A  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUN  is  used  in  speaking 
definitely  of  the  thing  named.  The  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns are  this,  that,  these,  those,  same,  such,  etc. 


84  ECLECTIC    GRAMMAR. 

A  RELATIVE  PRONOUN  represents  an  antecedent 
word  or  phrase,  and  connects  different  clauses  of  a  sen- 
tence. Who,  which,  what,  and  that  are  the  relative  pro- 
nouns. 

AN  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN  is  one  with  which  a 
question  is  asked.  There  are  three :  who,  which,  and  ivhat. 

A  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUN  is  a  word  used  to  represent 
both  the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed;  such  as, 
mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs,  etc. 

PRONOUNS  have  the  same  modifications  as  nouns. 

VERBS  are  divided  into  four  classes;  namely,  Regular, 
Irregular,  Redundant,  and  Defective. 

A  REGULAR  VERB  forms  the  preterit  and  the  perfect 
participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed;  as,  love,  loved. 

AN  IRREGULAR  VERB  does  not  form  the  preterit  and 
perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed;  as,  see,  saw,  seeing, 
seen. 

A  REDUNDANT  VERB  forms  the  preterit  or  the  perfect 
participle  in  two  or  more  ways,  so  as  to  be  both 
regular  and  irregular;  as,  thrive,  thrived  or  throve,  thriv- 
ing, thrived  or  thriven. 

A  DEFECTIVE  VERB  forms  no  participles,  and  is  used 
in  but  few  of  the  moods  and  tenses ;  as,  beware,  ought. 

VERBS  are  divided  in  respect  to  their  signification 
into  four  classes:  Transitive,  Intransitive,  Passive,  and 
Neuter. 

A  TRANSITIVE  VERB  expresses  an  action,  which  has 
some  person  or  thing  for  its  object;  as,  "John  struck 
James." 

AN  INTRANSITIVE  VERB  expresses  an  action  which 
has  no  object;  as,  "William  walks." 

A  PASSIVE  VERB  represents  its  subject,  or  nominative, 
as  being  acted  upon ;  as,  "  I  am  compelled" 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  85 

A  NEUTER  VERB  expresses  neither  action  nor  passiorL 
but  simply  being,  or  a  state  of  being ;  as,  "  You  are ;  " 
«  He  sleeps? 

The  modification  of  verbs  are  Moods,  Voices,  Tenses, 
Persons,  and  Numbers. 

MOODS  are  different  forms  of  the  verb,  each  of  which 
expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion  in  some  particular 
manner.  The  moods  are  the  Infinitive,  the  Indicative, 
the  Potential,  the  Subjunctive,  and  the  Imperative. 

THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD  expresses  being,  action,  or 
passion  in  an  unlimited  manner,  and  without  person  or 
number;  as,  to  read;  to  speak. 

THE  INDICATIVE  MOOD  simply  indicates  or  declares  a 
thing;  as,  "\wtite;"  "Yv\\  know ;"  or  asks  a  question ; 
as,  "  Do  you  know?  " 

THE  POTENTIAL  MOOD  expresses  the  power,  liberty, 
possibility,  or  necessity  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion ; 
as,  "I  can  read;"  "We  must  go? 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD  represents  the  being,  action, 
or  passion,  as  conditional,  doubtful,  or  contingent;  as, 
"  If  you  go? 

THE  IMPERATIVE  MOOD  is  used  in  commanding,  ex- 
horting, entreating,  or  permitting;  as,  "Depart  thou;" 
"  Be  comforted;"  "  Forgive  me ;  "  "  Go  in  peace." 

THE  VOICES  are  the  Active  and  the  Passive,  and  be- 
long to  transitive  verbs.  A  verb  is  in  the  active  voice 
when  the  subject  stands  for  the  doer  or  agent  of  the 
action ;  as,  "  He  struck  the  table,"  A  verb  is  in  the  pas- 
sive voice  when  the  subject  stands  for  the  real  object  of 
the  action ;  as,  "  The  table  was  struck  by  him." 

TENSE  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event  There 
are  six  tenses:  the  Present,  the  Present- Perfect,  the  Past, 
the  Past-Perfect,  the  Future,  and  the  Future-Perfect, 


86  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

THE  PRESENT  TENSE  denotes  present  time;  as,  "I 
write;  "  "  The  wind  is  blowing? 

THE  PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE  represents  an  action 
or  event  as  past,  but  connected  with  present  time ;  "  I 
have  written;  "  "  The  wind  has  been  blowing? 

THE  PAST  TENSE  denotes  past  time;  as,  "I  wrote;" 
"The  wind  blew" 

THE  PAST-PERFECT  TENSE  represents  an  act  as  ended 
or  completed  in  time  fully  past;  as,  "  I  had  written? 

THE  FUTURE  TENSE  denotes  future  time;  as,  "  I  shall 
write? 

THE  FUTURE-PERFECT  TENSE  represents  an  act  as 
finished  or  ended  at  or  before  a  certain  future  time ;  as,  "  I 
sJiall  have  written  the  letter  before  the  mail  closes." 

The  person  and  number  of  a  verb  should  agree  with 
its  subject  and  nominative. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrangement  of 
its  moods,  voices,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and  participles. 

In  the  conjugation  of  every  simple  and  complete  verb 
there  are  the  present  indicative,  the  past  indicative,  and 
the  perfect  participle. 

THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS  are  short  verbs  prefixed  to 
one  of  the  principal  parts  of  another  verb  to  express 
some  particular  mode  and  time  of  the  being,  action,  or 
passion.  The  auxiliaries  are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may> 
can,  and  must,  and  their  variations. 

ADVERBS  are  divided  into  four  general  classes ;  namely, 
adverbs  of  Time,  of  Place,  of  Degree,  and  of  Manner. 

ADVERBS  OF  TIME  answer  to  the  questions  When  ?  How 
long?  How  soon  ?  or,  How  often  ?  including  those  which  ask. 

ADVERBS  OF  PLACE  answer  to  the  questions  Where? 
Whither?  Whence?  or  Whereabouts?  including  those 
which  ask. 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  8/ 

ADVERBS  OF  DEGREE  answer  to  the"  questions  How 
muck?  Hoiv  little?  or,  to  the  idea  of  more  or  less. 

ADVERBS  OF  MANNER  answer  to  the  question  How? 
or,  by  affirming,  denying,  or  doubting,  show  hoiv  a  subject 
is  regarded. 

CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERBS.  Adverbs  sometimes  per- 
form the  office  of  conjunctions,  and  serve  to  connect 
sentences,  as  well  as  to  express  some  circumstance  of 
time,  place,  degree,  or  manner;  adverbs  so  used  are  called 
conjunctive  adverbs. 

'  MODIFICATIONS.  Adverbs  have  not  any  modifica- 
tions, except  that  a  few  are  compared  after  the  manner 
of  adjectives ;  as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest ;  often,  oftener,  often- 
est ;  long,  longer,  longest.  Adverbs  are  also  irregularly 
compared ;  as,  well,  better,  best. 

CONJUNCTIONS  are  divided  into  three  general  classes; 
namely,  Copulative,  Disjunctive  and  Correlative. 

A  COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTION  denotes  an  addition, 
a  cause,  or  a  supposition ;  as,  "  He  and  I  shall  not  dis- 
pute; for,  if  he  express  any  choice,  I  shall  grant  it." 

A  DISJUNCTIVE  CONJUNCTION  denotes  opposition  of 
meaning;  as,  "Be  not  overcome  [by]  evil,  fo// overcome 
evil  with  good." 

THE  CORRELATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  are  used  in  pairs, 
so  that  one  refers  or  answers  to  another;  as,  "John  came, 
neither  eating  nor  drinking." 


SYNTAX. 

Syntax  lays  down  the  principles  by  which  we  are  to 
be  guided  in  the  construction  of  sentences.  It  treats  of 
the  relation,  agreement,  government,  and  arrangement  of 
words.  The  general  principles  of  relation,  agreement 


88  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

and  government  are  comprised  in  the  following  rules> 
twenty-six  in  number,  taken  from  Goold  Brown,  or, 
as  he  is  commonly  called,  "  the  grammarian  of  gram- 
marians." 

RULE  i.  Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they 
limit;  as,  "At  a  little  distance  from  tJie  ruins  of  the 
abbey  stands  an  aged  elm."  [Several  exceptions  are 
noted  to  this  rule,  the  definite  article  sometimes  relating 
to  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  etc.] 

RULE  2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of 
a  finite  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case;  as,  "I  know 
thou  sayst  it:  says  thy  life  the  same?" 

RULE  3.  A  noun  or  a  personal  pronoun  used  to  ex- 
plain a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun  is  put,  by  apposition, 
in  the  same  case;  as,  "  But  he,  our  gracious  Master'' 

RULE  4.  Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns;  as, 
"  He  is  a  wise  man,  though  he  is  young!'  [The  excep- 
tions noted  to  this  rule  show  that  the  adjective  some- 
times may  relate  to  a  phrase  or  sentence  which  is  the 
subject  of  an  intervening  verb,  or  may  be  taken  abstractly 
with  an  infinitive  or  a  participle.] 

RULE  5.  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent, 
or  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  person, 
number,  and  gender ;  as,  "  This  is  the  friend  of  whom  I 
spoke;  he  has  just  arrived."  [Several  exceptions  are 
noted  to  this  rule.] 

RULE  6.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun 
conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  pronoun  must  agree 
with  it  in  the  plural  number;  as,  "The  council  were 
divided  in  their  sentiments." 

NOTE. — A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity 
requires  a  pronoun  in  the  third  person,  singular,  neuter, 
agreeably  to  Rule  5  ;  as,  "  The  nation  will  enforce  its  laws." 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  89 

RULE  7.  When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  ante- 
cedents connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in 
the  plural  number;  as,  "James  and  John  will  favor  us  with 
their  company."  [This  rule  also  admits  of  exceptions.] 

RULE  8.  When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular 
antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with 
them  in  the  singular  number;  as,  "James  or  Jo/in  will 
favor  us  with  his  company." 

RULE  9.  A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or 
nominative,  in  person  and  number;  as,  "I  knoiv ;  thou 
knowst,  or  knowest ;  he  knoivs,  or  kno^vetJl;"  "the  bird 
files;  the  birds  fly." 

RULE  10.  When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun 
conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree  with 
it  in  the  plural  number ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided" 

NOTE. — A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity 
requires  a  verb  in  the  third  person,  singular,  and  gener- 
ally admits  also  of  the  regular  plural  construction ;  as, 
**  His  army  was  defeated;"  "  His  armies  were  defeated" 

RULE  1 1.  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  nominatives 
connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural 
number;  as,  "Judges  and  Senates  liave  been  bought  for 
gold;  esteem  and  love  were  never  to  be  sold." — Pope. 
[The  rule  admits  of  several  exceptions.] 

NOTES. — When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  are  con- 
nected, one  of  which  is  taken  affirmatively  and  the  other 
negatively,  the  verb  or  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  af- 
firmative subject  and  be  understood  to  the  other ;  as, 
"  Diligent  industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  produces 
honorable  competence." 

When  two  subjects  or  antecedents  are  connected  by 
as  well  as,  but,  or  save,  they  belong  to  different  propo- 
sitions ;  and  (unless  one  of  them  is  perceded  by  the  adverb 


9O  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

not]  the  verb  and  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  former 
and  be  understood  to  the  latter ;  as,  "Veracity,  as  well  as 
justice,  is  to  be  our  rule  of  life;"  "Nothing,  but  wailings, 
was  heard" 

When  two  or  more  subjects  or  antecedents  are  pre- 
ceded by  the  adjective  each,  every,  or  know,  they  are  taken 
separately,  and  require  a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  singu- 
lar number;  as,  "And  every  sense  and  every  heart  is 
joy." 

When  words  are  to  be  taken  conjointly  as  subjects  or 
antecedents,  the  conjunction  and  must  connect  them. 

Two  or  more  distinct  subject-phrases  connected  by 
and  require  a  plural  verb;  as,  "To  be  wise  in  our  own 
eyes,  to  be  wise  in  the  opinion  of  the  world,  and  to  be 
wise  in  the  sight  of  our  Creator,  arc  three  things  so  very 
different  as  rarely  to  coincide." 

RULE  12.  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  singular 
nominatives  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with 
them  in  the  singular  number;  as,  "Fear  or  jealousy  af- 
fects him. 

NOTES. — When  a  verb  has  nominatives  of  different 
persons  or  numbers  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree 
with  that  which  is  placed  next  to  it,  and  be  understood 
to  the  rest,  in  the  person  and  number  required;  as, 
"  Neither  he  nor  his  brothers  were  there." 

But  when  the  nominatives  require  different  forms  of 
the  verb,  it  is,  in  general,  more  elegant  to  express  the 
verb,  or  its  auxiliary,  in  connection  with  each  of  them ; 
as,  "  Either  thou  art  to  blame,  or  I  <?;;/." 

Two  or  more  distinct  subject-phrases  connected  by  or 
or  nor  require  a  singular  verb;  as,  "That  a  drunkard 
should  be  poor,  or  that  a  fop  should  be  ignorant,  is  not 
strange." 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  9 1 

RULE  13.  When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunc- 
tion, they  must  either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form, 
or  have  separate  nominatives  expressed;  as,  "He,  him- 
self, held  the  plow,  sowed  the  grain,  and  attended  the 
reapers." 

EXCEPTION.— Verbs  differing  in  mood,  tense,  or  form 
may  sometimes  agree  with  the  same  nominative,  espe- 
cially if  the  simplest  verb  be  placed  first;  as,  "What 
nothing  earthly  gives,  or  can  destroy'' 

RULE  14.  Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or 
else  are  governed  by  prepositions;  as,  "Elizabeth's  tutor> 
at  one  time  paying  her  a  visit,  found  her  employed  in 
reading  Plato."  [There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.] 

NOTES.  Active  participles  have  the  same  government 
as  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived  ;  the  preposi- 
tion of,  therefore,  should  never  be  used  after  the  parti- 
ciple when  the  verb  does  not  require  it.  Thus,  in  phrases 
like  the  following,  of  is  improper  :  "  keeping  of  one  day 
in  seven  ;"  "by  preaching  of  repentance." 

When  a  transitive  participle  is  converted  into  a  noun, 
0/must  be  inserted  to  govern  the  object  following. 

A  participle  should  not  be  used  where  the  infinitive 
mood,  the  verbal  noun,  a  common  substantive,  or  a 
phrase  equivalent,  will  better  express  the  meaning. 

In  the  use  of  participles  and  of  verbal  nouns,  the  lead- 
ing word  in  sense  should  always  be  made  the  leading  or 
governing  word  in  the  construction. 

Participles  in  general,  however  construed,  should  have 
a  clear  reference  to  the  proper  subject  of  the  being,  ac- 
tion, or  passion. 

RULE  15.  Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, or  other  adverbs  ;  as,  "Any  passion  that  habitu- 
ally discomposes  our  temper,  or  unfits  us  for  properly 


92  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

discharging  the  duties  of  life,  has  most  certainly  gained  a 
very  dangerous  ascendency."  [This  rule  admits  of  ex- 
ceptions.] 

Adverbs  must  be  placed  in  that  position  which  will 
render  the  sentence  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable. 

Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives ;  nor  should 
they  be  employed  when  quality  is  to  be  expressed,  and 
not  manner;  as,  "  The  soonest  time." 

A  negation  in  English  admits  of  but  one  negative 
word;  as,  "I  could  not  wait  any  longer;"  not,  "no 
longer." 

RULE  1 6.  Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  sen- 
tences; as,  "Let  there  be  no  strife,  I  pray  thee,  between 
me  and  thee,  and  between  my  herdsmen  and  thy  herds- 
men ;  for  we  are  brethren."  [To  this  rule  there  are  ex- 
ceptions.] 

RULE  17.  Prepositions  show  the  relation  of  things; 
as,  "  He  came  from  Rome  to  Paris  /';/  the  company  of 
many  eminent  men,  and  passed  with  them  through  many 
cities."  [Exceptions  are  noted  to  this  rule.] 

NOTES. — Prepositions  must  be  chosen  and  employed 
agreeably  to  the  usage  and  idiom  of  the  language,  so  as 
rightly  to  express  the  relations  intended. 

An  ellipsis  or  omission  of  prepositions  is  inelegant, 
except  in  those  phrases  in  which  long  and  general  use 
has  sanctioned  it. 

RULE  1 8.  Interjections  have  no  dependent  construc- 
tion ;  as,  "Oh  !  let  not  thy  heart  despise  me." 

RULE  19.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case 
is  governed  by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  ;  as, 
"  Touched  by  thy  hand,  again  Rome's  glories  shine." 

RULE  20.  Transitive  verbs  and  their  participles  govern 
the  objective  case;  as,  "  I  found  her  assisting  him." 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR  93 

NOTE. — Those  verbs  and  participles  which  do  not 
admit  of  an  object  should  not  be  used  transitively;  as, 
"  The  planters  grow  cotton ;  "  say  raise,  or  cultivate, 

RULE  21.  Intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs  and 
their  participles  take  the  same  case  after  as  before  them, 
when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing ;  as,  "//  could 
not  be  /ie." 

RULE  22.  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case;  as> 
"  Truth  and  good  are  one ;  and  beauty  dwells  in  them, 
and  they  in  her,  with  \\V^  participation" 

RULE  23.  The  preposition  to  governs  the  infinitive 
mood,  and  commonly  connects  it  with  a  finite  verb;  as, 
"  I  desire  to  learn." 

RULE  24.  The  active  verbs,  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let, 
make,  need,  see,  and  their  participles,  usually  take  the 
infinitive  after  them,  without  the  preposition  to;  as,  "  If 
he  bade  thee  depart,  how  darest  thou  stay?" 

RULE  25.  A  noun,  or  a  pronoun,  is  put  absolute  in 
the  nominative,  when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word; 
as,  "He failing,  who  shall  meet  success?" 

RULE  26.  A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by 
a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  present;  and  a  mere  suppo- 
sition with  indefinite  time,  by  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive 
past;  but  a  conditional  circumstance,  assumed  as  a  fact, 
requires  the  indicative  mood ;  as,  "  If  thou  forsake  him, 
he  will  cast  thee  off  forever;  "  "  If  it  were  not  so,  I  would 
have  told  you ;  "  "If  thou  went,  nothing  would  be  gained." 


COMMON   ERRORS. 

People  of  intelligence  make  many  grammatical  errors 
in  the  use  of  single  words  or  forms,  and  false  concords, 
that  is  to  say,  wrong  genders,  numbers,  cases,  and  tenses. 


94  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

"A  and  THE,"  says  Professor  Nichol,  "  should  be  re- 
peated when  they  introduce  two  or  more  nouns  or  adjec- 
tives referring  to  distinct  things ;  e.  g.,  '  She  had  a  black 
and  white  dog.'  If  two  dogs  are  meant,  it  should  be: 
'  She  had  a  black  and  a  white  dog.'  *  The  Queen  sent 
for  the  secretary  and  treasurer '  should  be,  '  The  Queen 
sent  for  the  secretary  and  the  treasurer,'  unless  it  is  meant 
to  imply  that  the  two  offices  are  combined  in  one  person." 

THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE  is  often  used  interchangeably 
with  the  genitive  [a  Latin  case  indicating  origin,  posses- 
sion, etc.]  after  of.  "  My  father's  house,"  and  "  the  house 
of  my  father  "  are  identical ;  but  the  latter  form  is  more 
accurate  when  the  subject  is  neuter.  Prefer  "  the  roof  of 
the  house"  to  "the  house's  roof;"  "the  history  of  Mex- 
ico" to  "Mexico's  history."  Where  two  possessives,  one 
personal,  the  other  a  mere  genitive,  come  together,  the 
result  is  bad  English  ;  as,  "  in  Hannibal's  march's  ex- 
pected line"  should  be  "in  the  expected  line  of  Hanni- 
bal's march." 

Whose  is  permitted  after  a  neuter;  we  may  say:  "The 
country  whose  fertility  is  great,"  but  prefer  "  the  country 
the  fertility  of  ivliicli  is  great."  Professor  Gould  says  : 
41  Every  man  who  is  sensitive  on  the  subject  of  correct 
language  must  have  felt  the  want  of  an  impersonal  rela- 
tive pronoun  the  possessive  case  of  which  should  hold 
toward  things  the  relation  that  '  whose '  holds  to  persons. 
But  there  is  no  such  pronoun,  and  no  human  ingenuity 
can  make  one.  In  its  absence,  whose  has  been  substi- 
tuted as  a  matter  of  necessity,  and  almost  by  common 
consent." 

Before  a  participle  in  such  cases  as,  "  the  cry  of  the 
church's  being  in  danger,"  the  noun  may  be  in  the 
possessive,  but  it  is  like  a  double  genitive,  and  it  is, 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  95 

therefore,  better  to  say :  "  the  cry  of  the  church  being  in 
danger."  The  possessive  form  attaches  only  to  the  last 
form  of  a  title  ;  as,  "  The  King  of  France's  decree,"  and 
generally  comes  close  to  the  related  noun.  Hence 
the  awkwardness  of  saying :  "  England's  Mediterranean 
power;"  it  should  be:  "the  power  of  England  in  the 
Mediterranean."  But  observe  the  difference  in  the  fol- 
lowing :  "  Peter's,  Joseph's,  and  Richard's  estate  "  means 
that  each  had  a  separate  estate.  "  Peter,  Joseph,  and 
Richard's  estate  "  means  their  joint  property.  The  pos- 
sessive of  one  noun  is  often  incorrectly  used  with  another 
noun  followed  by  a  relative.  "  They  attacked  Legrand's 
house,  whom  they  put  to  death,"  means  they  put  the 
house  to  death  ;  it  should  be  :  "  They  attacked  the  house 
of  Legrand,  whom  they  put  to  death."  For  "  I  await  the 
lady's  opinion  for  whose  use  it  was  intended,"  read  :  "  I 
await  the  opinion  of  the  lady  for  whose  use  it  was  in- 
tended." "A  copy  of  his  idea  who  made  it,"  is,  at  least, 
a  questionable  expression.  Better  read  :  "A  copy  of  the 
idea  of  the  original  contriver,"  or  "thinker."  A  more 
glaring  error  is  in  the  employment  of  both  tf/and  the 
possessive,  as  in  the  phrase  :  " that  of  other  men's"  The 
use  of  the  possessive  should  be  avoided  where  its  active 
and  passive  senses  are  likely  to  be  confounded.  "  Have 
you  heard,"  asked  a  friend  of  an  old  gentleman,  "  have 
you  heard  of  your  son's  robbery?"  "Not  yet,"  was 
the  answer;  "whom  did  he  rob?"  Custom  appears  to 
have  sanctioned  the  use  of  the  possessive  case  in  place 
of  the  nominative  or  the  objective  as  the  antecedent  to 
a  pronoun  ;  as,  "  But  when  I  heard  John's  voice,  I  knew 
that  he  was  safe ;"  "Smith's  story  is  all  untrue,  and  I 
have  told  him  so."  If,  in  the  examples  here  cited,  the 
proper  noun  had  been,  by  a  change  of  construction,  put 


96  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

in  either  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case,  there  could 
be  no  possibility  of  error. 

Somebody,  Anybody,  Everybody,  Nobody,  each  of 
which  is  spelled  as  one  word,  may  be  treated  as  two 
words:  namely,  the  adjectives  some,  any,  every,  etc.,  and 
the  noun  body ;  but  when  body  is  joined  to  the  adjectives 
some,  any,  every,  etc.,  the  combination  becomes  one  word, 
so  far  as  grammatical  construction  is  concerned,  and  the 
one  word  somebody,  or  its  analogues,  is  frequently  quali- 
fied by  the  adjective  else,  meaning  somebody  besides  the 
one  first  mentioned.  To  indicate  possession  we  should 
add  an  apostrophe  and  an  s  to  the  noun.  But  the  adjective 
else,  and  not  the  noun,  is  often  erroneously  put  in  the  pos- 
sessive ;  as,  "somebody  else's  novel ;"  "  anybody  else's  cus- 
tom ;"  "  everybody  else's  wish;"  "  nobody  else's  business." 
The  proper  construction  is:  "somebody's  else  novel; 
"anybody's  else  custom;"  "everybody's  else  wish;"  "no- 
body's else  business." 

GENDER  OF  NOUNS.  Relative  to  the  gender  of  nouns 
it  may  be  remarked  that  some  masculine  forms  have  a 
common  or  inclusive  sense,  and  may,  without  impropriety, 
be  applied  to  females ;  but  there  is  a  palpable  difference 
between  saying:  "Adelaide  Neilson  was  the  greatest 
actress  of  her  time,"  and  saying,  "Adelaide  Neilson  was 
the  greatest  actor  of  her  time."  The  latter  form  is  equiv- 
alent to  asserting  that  she  was  the  greatest  genius  among 
all  the  actors  and  actresses  of  her  time,  which  is  not 
what  is  meant. 

ADJECTIVES.  As  a  rule  one  adjective  cannot  qualify 
another,  but  there  are  exceptions ;  as,  "  A  red  hot  poker ;" 
"The  pale  blue  sky."  Some  adjectives,  logically  incapa- 
ble of  degree,  as,  certain,  fall,  false,  true,  honest,  square, 
round,  even,  accurate,  occasionally  admit  of  comparison 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  97 

with  reference  to  their  approach  to  the  standard,  or  the 
degree  of  the  quality  they  display.  This  license,  how- 
ever, should  be  used  with  caution.  Such  an  expression 
as,  " more  perfect,"  is  hardly  admissible,  while,  "more 
preferable,"  "  most  entire,"  are  mere  redundancies.  We 
should  remember  to  use  the  comparative  of  the  adjective 
when  only  two  things  are  compared.  "  He  is  the  taller" 
not  the  tallest,  "  of  the  two  brothers."  The  superlative 
may,  however,  go  with  a  singular  form  when  the  matter 
has  a  collective  meaning;  as,  "  He  was  the  eldest  of  the 
family."  "  His  eyes  are  the  worst  of  his  face,"  means 
that  his  eyes  are  the  worst  of  all  the  features  of  his 
face.  Such  words  as  fast  may  be  either  adjectives  or 
adverbs.  Discrimination  should  be  exercised  in  their 
use,  and,  in  prose,  adjectives  should  not  be  used  for 
adverbs,  nor  vice  versa.  Such  phrases  as  "excessive 
wrong ; "  "  that  being  the  now  estimate,"  are  incorrect. 
An  adjective  does  not  necessarily  become  an  adverb  by 
accompanying  a  verb;  as,  "  Uneasy  lies  the  head  that 
wears  a  crown."  Here  uneasy  is  an  adjective  qualifying 
"head." 

The  use  of  then  as  an  adjective  is  not  correct,  although 
very  common  ;  as,  "  The  then  editor  of  the  '  Sun  '  is  now 
dead."  Then  is  an  adverb  of  time,  and  the  sentence 
should  read  thus  :  "  He  who  was  then  the  editor  of  the 
'  Sun  '  is  now  dead."  This  error  is  the  result  of  a  desire 
for  brevity,  but  verbal  economy  is  not  commendable 
when  it  violates  the  plainest  rules  of  grammar.  Then 
may  sometimes  be  properly  used  as  a  conjunction. 

Adjectives  often  stand  where  adverbs  might  be  ex- 
pected ;  as,  " drink  deep"  " this  looks  strange"  " standing 
erect"  In  certain  instances  it  is  proper  to  employ 
adjectives;  yet  such  phrases  as,  "indifferent  well," 

8 


98  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

u extreme  bad,"  are  grammatical  errors/  "I  would  have 
done  it  independent  of  any  consideration,"  is  an  incorrect 
sentence,  and  should  be  :  "I  would  have  done  it  inde- 
pendently of  any  consideration." 

THE  CONJUNCTION  THAN.  Relative  to  this  word, 
which  is  a  source  of  much  confusion,  Webster  says  :  "A 
particle  expressing  comparison,  used  after  certain  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs  which  express  comparison  or  diversity, 
it  [than]  is  usually  followed  by  the  object  compared, 
in  the  nominative  case.  Sometimes,  however,  the  object 
compared  is  placed  in  the  objective  case,  and  tJian  is  then 
considered  by  some  grammarians  as  a  preposition." 

Generally,  it  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  than 
does  not  govern  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "Washington, 
than  whom  no  man  was  ever  more  beloved  by  his 
countrymen ; "  "  Beelzebub,  than  whom,  Satan  except, 
none  higher  sat."  While  it  is  claimed  that  such  sentences 
are  correct,  the  weight  of  authority  appears  to  be  to  the 
contrary.  It  is  correct  to  say:  "I  esteem  you  more  than 
they"  or  "I  esteem  you  more  than  them;"  but  the  phrases 
differ  in  meaning,  the  first  being  equivalent  to  :  "I  es- 
teem you  more  than  they  do;"  the  second  to:  "I  esteem 
you  more  than  I  esteem  them." 

VERBS.  It  is  a  violation  of  grammar  to  confound,  as 
is  often  done,  broke  and  broken,  bore  and  borne,  stole  and 
stolen,  wove  and  woven,  arose  and  arisen.  The  auxiliary 
be,  which  goes  with  intransitive  verbs,  is  sometimes 
wrongly  used  for  have,  which  generally  goes  with  transi- 
tive verbs;  as,  "I  am  just  arrived  at  San  Francisco;" 
"  The  pretender  being  returned  ;  "  "I  found  she  was  gone 
out  of  the  house."  Properly  constructed,  these  sentences 
should  read  thus:  "  I  //adjust arrived  at  San  Francisco;" 
"  The  pretender  having  returned ;"  "  I  found  she  /tad  gone 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  99 

out  of  the  house?."  The  introduction  of  "out  of,"  in  the 
last  expression,  makes  the  verb  transitive.  The  infinitive 
of  the  verb  can  now  be  used  properly  only  substantively, 
as  a  nominative,  and  accordingly  such  a  construction  as 
the  following  is  inadmissible  in  prose : 

"  For  not  to  have  been  dipped  in  Lethe's  stream 
Could  not  save  the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die" 

The  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb  should  be  put  in 
the  objective  case;  as,  "The  lightning  struck  the  tree, 
and  made  it  wither."  The  verbs  teach,  ask,  forgive,  tell, 
etc.,  take  two  objectives,  one  of  a  person,  and  the  other 
of  a  thing;  as,  "  He  taught  his  pupils  history;"  "They 
asked  him  his  name.'"  The  verbs  to  make,  name,  call, 
esteem,  etc.,  take  two  objectives  of  the  same  person  or 
thing;  as,  "They  called  John  a  traitor''  Intransitive 
verbs  often  take  an  objective  case,  akin  in  form  or 
meaning  to  the  verb  itself;  as,  "  He  dreamed  a  dream" 

Verbs  are  often  incorrectly  used  as  if  governing  the 
nominative  case  of  a  personal  pronoun.  Example :  "Let's 
you  and  I  go;"  instead  of,  "Let  us  go;"  or,  "Let  you 
and  me  go." 

Have  went,  and  similar  expressions,  though  incorrect, 
often  escape  notice  from  the  fact  that  the  different  parts 
of  the  verb  are  likely  to  be  separated  in  a  sentence ;  as, 
"  I  have  walked  a  long  distance,  and  although  much 
fatigued,  went  to  several  places."  Corrected,  the  sentence 
would  read,  "  I  have  walked  a  long  distance,  and  although 
much  fatigued,  gone  to  several  places."  A  still  better 
construction  would  be :  "I  have  walked  a  long  distance, 
and  although  much  fatigued,  have  gone  to  several 
places." 

I  done,  I  seen,  Iliave  saw,  are  all  ungrammatical  expres- 
sions, and  should  be,  /  did,  I  saw,  I  have  seen. 


100  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

The  verb  See  is  often  incorrectly  used  in  the  present 
tense;  as,  "I  see  him  yesterday;"  instead  of,  "I  saw 
him  yesterday."  To  see  is  present, yesterday  is  past,  hence 
the  absurdity  of  the  expression  criticised.  We  might 
say  with  equal  propriety:  "  I  see  him.  to-morrow,"  instead 
of,  "  I  shall  see  him  to-morrow."  It  is  sometimes  permis- 
sible, however,  where  the  ideas  of  frequent  repetition,  or 
of  continued  presence,  are  involved,  to  say  /  see  when 
speaking  of  what  is  temporarily  past;  as,  "I  see  them 
every  day ;  "  "  I  see  by  the  papers  that  the  Legislature  has 
adjourned,"  etc. 

Immutability,  actual  or  supposed,  requires  the  present 
tense;  as,  "He  saw  that  virtue  is  advantageous.  The 
verb  come  is  commonly  misused  in  the  present  form  for 
came,  which  is  past ;  as,  "  He  come  to  my  house  to-day." 
Corrected,  the  sentence  would  read,  "  He  came  to  my 
house  to-day." 

We  often  hear  has  began  used  instead  of  has  begun, 
and  begun  instead  of  began.  "  He  Jias  began  to  attend 
night  school :  "  "  He  begun  his  allotted  task."  We  should 
say,  "  He  has  begun  to  attend  night  school;"  "  He  began 
his  allotted  task."  Began  is  the  past  tense  of  the  verb 
to  begin,  begun  is  its  perfect  participle. 

The  preterit  of  the  verb  to-  drink  should  not  be  used 
for  the  perfect  participle  ;  as,  "  Many  toasts  were  drank 
at  the  banquet."  Properly  worded  the  sentence  would 
read :  "  Many  toasts  were  drunk  at  the  banquet." 

Had  ought,  had  better,  had  rather.  Says  Professor 
Mathews:  "All  these  expressions  are  absurdities,  not 
less  gross  than  hisn,  totJier,  haint,  theirn.  No  doubt  there 
is  plenty  of  good  authority  for  had  better  and  had  rather; 
but  how  can  future  action  be  expressed  by  a  verb  that 
signifies  past  and  completed  possession?" 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  IOI 

Relative  to  had  have  the  same  author  says,  "  This  is 
a  very  low  vulgarism,  notwithstanding  it  has  the  author- 
ity of  Addison.  It  is  quite  common  to  say,  '  Had  I  have 
seen  him,'  'Had  you  have  known  it,'  etc.  We  can  say,  c  I 
had  been]  but  what  sort  of  a  tense  is  had  have  been?" 

FALSE  CONCORDS.  A  confusion  in  the  use  of  figura- 
tive language  is  generally  the  source  of  mistakes  in  gender. 
"The  critics  who  contended  for  Homer"  is,  to  say  the  least, 
an  over-violent  personification.  It  is  now  no  longer 
proper  to  use  the  pronoun  which  as  it  was  used  in  the 
time  of  Shakespeare.  As  an  interrogative,  which  applies 
to  persons  as  well  as  to  things,  but  as  a  relative  its  use  is 
restricted  to  things.  -  The  pronoun  that,  on  the  contrary, 
may  be  applied  to  both  persons  and  things.  It  is  correct 
to  say,  "Which  of  the  two  brothers  did  you  see  to-day?" 
"  We  were  the  first  that  entered  the  church." 

WHO.  The  personal  pronoun  who  is  often  incorrectly 
used  in  the  nominative  for  the  objective  whom;  as,  "  Who 
did  you  see  ?"  The  error  in  this  sentence  will  readily  be 
perceived  by  putting  it  in  another  form,  thus  :  "  Who 
saw  you  ?"  which  is  the  very  reverse  of  what  is  meant  to 
be  said.  Put  it  into  another  form,  by  reversing  the  last, 
and  it  reads  :  " You  saw  who"  which,  if  correct,  so  is 
"You  saw  /ie"  "You  saw  s/ie"  etc.  But  it  is  not  cor- 
rect, and  should  be:  "Whom  did  you  see?"  or,  "Whom 
saw  you  ?"  or,  "  You  saw  whom  ?"  Turn  it  as  we  please, 
we  cannot  now  change  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 
Whom,  the  objective,  is  also  misused  for  who,  the  nomi- 
native ;  as,  "  For  the  benefit  of  those  whom  she  thought 
were  his  friends/'  Here  the  error  may  be  detected  by 
inclosing  in  brackets  the  two  words  which  are  paren- 
thetical, when  the  sentence  reads  thus  :  "  For  the  benefit 
of  those  whom  [she  thought]  were  his  friends."  Whom 


102  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

were  his  friends !  The  wording  should  be,  "  who  she 
thought,  were  his  friends."  Errors  of  this  class  most 
frequently  escape  detection,  because  obscured  by  paren- 
thetical words. 

The  Relative  Pronoun  That  is  often  awkwardly  and 
unnecessarily  repeated  ;  as,  "  It  does  not  follow  thaty 
because  there  are  no  national  banks  of  issue  at  the  South, 
that  there  is  necessarily  an  insufficiency  of  currency 
there."  Reconstructed  the  sentence  should  read  thus  : 
"  It  does  not  follow  that,  because  there  are  no  national 
banks  of  issue  at  the  South,  there  is  necessarily  an  in- 
sufficiency of  currency  there;"  or,  "It  does  not  follow, 
because  there  are  no  national  banks  of  issue  at  the  South, 
tJiat  there  is  necessarily  an  insufficiency  of  currency 
there."  In  such  expressions  as  the  following,  tJiat  is 
improperly  omitted  :  "  Such,  at  least,  is  the  reasoning 
of  the  ladies,  and  we  suppose  they  are  right."  "The 
proper  wording  is  :  "  Such,  at  least,  is  the  reasoning  of 
the  ladies,  and  we  suppose  that  they  are  right."  In 
conversation,  however,  the  omission  of  that,  if  not  too 
frequent,  is  not  only  correct,  but  preferable. 

The  evident  misuse  of  the  relative  pronoun  that  has 
doubtless  led  many  persons  to  omit  it,  where  otherwise 
they  would  have  employed  it.  The  "  Spectator,"  in  an 
article  headed,  "The  Just  Remonstrance  of  Affronted 
That,"  and  referring  to  the  use  of  that  as  supplying  the 
places  of  the  pronouns  who  and  which,  concludes  thus  : 

"  I  am  not  against  reforming  the  corruptions  of  speech 
you  mention,  and  own  there  are  proper  reasons  for  the 
introduction  of  other  words  besides  that ;  but  I  scorn  as 
much  to  supply  the  place  of  a  who  or  a  which  at  every 
turn,  as  they  are  unequal  always  to  fill  mine;  and  I 
expect  good  language  and  civil  treatment,  and  hope  to 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  103 

receive  it  for  the  future :  That,  that  I  shall  only  add  is, 
that  I  am,  Yours,  That"  That  as  a  relative  is  distin- 
guished from  which  in  the  following  instances :  It  cannot 
stand  for  a  clause  or  a  sentence.  It  may  be  used  in 
reference  to  either  persons  or  things.  Tt  cannot  take  a 
preposition  before  it.  We  may  say,  "  This  is  the  asser- 
tion to  which  I  object;"  but  we  must  say:  "This  is  the 
assertion  that  I  object  to"  It  is  in  closer  connection 
with  the  immediately  preceding  noun.  The  difference  is 
clearly  illustrated  by  comparing  the  following  sentences: 
"  There  was  a  hotel  next  door  which  was  a  nuisance." 
"  There  was  a  hotel  next  door  tJiat  was  a  nuisance." 
The  first  sentence  means,  that  the  fact  of  the  hotel 
being  next  door  constituted  the  nuisance ;  the  second 
sentence  means  simply  that  the  hotel  itself  was  a  nui- 
sance. That,  when  it  refers  to  an  object,  may  be  omitted ; 
it  should  not  be  introduced  immediately  after  a  proper 
name.  It  may  be  often  used  instead  of  ^vho  or  ivhich,  for 
variety. 

We  should  beware  of  using  such  expressions  as ;  "  It 
is  me;"  "  It  is  him;"  "Between  you  and  /;"  "  It  cannot 
be  me  you  mean."  They  should  read  thus:  "It  is  /;" 
"It  is  he;"  "Between  you  and  me;"  "  It  cannot  be  / 
whom  you  mean." 

The  indefinite  use  of  it  as  an  expression  for  a  state  of 
being,  or  the  subject  of  a  discourse,  is,  however,  unob- 
jectionable. The  verb  must  agree  with  the  it;  as,  "//  is 
I;"  "//  is  they."  The  most  frequent  abstract  use  of  -it 
appears  in  apposition  to  general  phrases ;  as,  "  It  is  im- 
possible to  say,"  and  as  representing  natural  processes ; 
as,  "//rains;"  "//blows." 

The  objective  absolute,  found  in  Milton,  is  obsolete. 
But  an  entire  clause,  thrown  into  the  objective,  may  be 


104  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

introduced  by  a  relative  in  the  nominative ;  as,  "  He 
went  on  speaking  to  who  ^^vould  listen  to  him"  Who  is 
here  elliptical  for  those  who, 

WRONG  NUMBERS  are  often  met  with  when  there  are 
intervening,  or  qualifying  clauses,  and  the  nearest  noun, 
or  group  of  nouns,  is  mistaken  for  the  nominative  ;  as, 
"The  taste  of  the  grapes  were  good;"  "A  plurality  of 
subjects  require  a  plural  verb;"  "The  dropping  of  super- 
fluous words  are  an  improvement  of  style;"  "He  was 
fonder  of  nothing  than  wit  and  raillery,  but  he  is  far  from 
being  happy  in  //."  Corrected,  the  sentences  would  read 
as  follows:  "The  taste  of  the  grapes  ivas  good;"  "A 
plurality  of  subjects  requires  a  plural  verb  ; "  u  The 
dropping  of  superfluous  words  is  an  improvement  of 
style  ;"  "  He  was  fonder  of  nothing  than  wit  and  raillery, 
but  he  is  far  from  being  happy  in  them." 

The  collective  force  of  and,  or  the  disjunctive  force  of 
or,  is  ignored  in  the  following :  "  Both  minister  and 
magistrate  is  compelled  to  choose  between  his  duty  and 
his  profession;"  "A  feeble,  harsh,  or  obscure  style  arc 
always  faults  ;"  "When  the  helplessness  of  childhood  or 
the  fraility  of  woman  make  an  appeal."  The  sentences, 
corrected,  read  thus  :  "  Both  minister  and  magistrate  arc 
compelled  to  choose  between  his  duty  and  his  profes- 
sion ;"  "A  feeble,  harsh,  or  obscure  style  is  always  a 
fault;"  "When  the  helplessness  of  childhood  or  the 
fraility  of  woman  makes  an  appeal."  But  sometimes  two 
subjects  are  so  closely  connected  as  to  make  a  single 
idea;  as,  "Hill  and  dale  doth  boast  thy  blessing;"  "All 
is  but  toys;"  "Renown  and  grace  is  dead."  These 
expressions  are  permissible. 

It  is  also  hypercritical  to  object  to  "  Thine  is  the  king- 
dom, and  the  power,  and  the  glory"  since  each  noun,  in 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  10$ 

turn,  is  regarded  as  the  nominative.  The  full  expression 
would  be  "  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  thine  is  the  power,  thine 
is  the  glory."  It  is  erroneous  to  say,  "  I  am  as  well  as 
when  you  ivas  here."  Excepting  in  poetry  "  you  "  is 
used  for  "  thou  "  as  well  as  in  the  plural,  but  it  must  be 
followed  by  the  plural  of  the  verb.  Hence,  the  correct 
construction  is :  "  I  am  as  well  as  when  you  were  here." 
The  verb,  as  a  rule,  should  agree  with  the  subject,  but  it 
may  agree  with  the  predicate  when  the  latter  comes  first 
in  the  sentence;  as,  "  The  reward  of  the  President  is  the 
love  and  respect  of  his  people."  The  following  sentences 
are  awkwardly  constructed  and  show  that  when  possible 
the  coupling  of  a  singular  and  a  plural  should  be  avoided  ;J> 
"  The  only  remaining  circumstance  is  the  principles."  "The 
only  other  part  of  speech  which  partakes  of  the  weakness 
remarked  in  conjunctions  is  prepositions."  The  wording 
of  the  sentences  should  be  altered  so  as  to  read  thus: 
"  The  principles  are  the  only  remaining  circumstance." 
"  Among  the  other  parts  of  speech  prepositions  alone 
partake  of  the  weakness  remarked  in  conjunctions." 

Many  collective  nouns,  such  as  people,  clique,  meeting, 
league,  etc.,  may  be  followed  indifferently  by  either  a 
singular  or  a  plural  verb,  but  we  should  be  careful  not  to 
vary  the  number  of  the  verbs  or  pronouns  agreeing  with 
the  same  noun  in  the  same  sentence;  as,  "  No  people  ever 
was  more  rudely  assailed  by  the  sword  of  conquest  than 
those  of  this  country ;  none  had  its  chains,  to  appearance, 
more  firmly  riveted  around  tJieir  necks."  "The  mob  is 
cruel  and  they  are  ignorant"  Corrected,  these  sentences 
should  read  thus:  "No  people  ever  were  more  rudely 
assailed  by  the  sword  of  conquest  than  those  of  this  coun- 
try; none  had  tJteir  chains,  to  appearance,  more  firmly 
riveted  around  their  necks;"  "The  mob  is  cruel,  and 


106  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

//   is  ignorant;1'  or,  "The  mob  are  cruel,  and   they  are 
ignorant." 

The  titles  of  books  should  always  be  in  the  singular; 
hence,  it  is  wrong  to  say,  "  'The  Industries  of  San  Fran- 
cisco' are  very  instructive  reading."  It  should  be :  "  '  The 
Industries  of  San  Francisco  '  is  very  instructive  reading.'* 
It  is  erroneous  to  say, "  Property  should  be  returned  to  their 
legal  owners,"  since  property  is  a  singular,  not  a  plural 
noun.  The  correct  construction  is  accordingly :  "  Prop- 
erty should  be  returned  to  its  legal  owners."  Writers 
are  often  puzzled  as  to  the  proper  number  of  the  verb 
following  nouns  which  are  really  or  apparently  plural  in 
form,  but  have  a  singular  meaning.  Alms  and  riches  are 
not  true  plurals,  but  commonly  take  the  plural  verb;  and 
summons  does  double  duty,  summonses  having  fallen  into 
disrepute,  although  literally  as  correct  as  licenses.  News* 
measles,  small-pox,  and  gallows  are  plurals,  but  are  nearly 
always  followed  by  a  singular  verb.  "  Wages  should  be 
followed  by  the  plural,"  writes  Professor  Nichol ;  " '  the 
men's  wages  are  distributed  every  Saturday  night '  is 
right."  But  we  should  not  be  led  into  the  error  of  say- 
ing, "  The  wages  of  sin  are  death."  The  correct  wording 
in  this  case  is,  "  The  wages  of  sin  is  death."  Concerning 
means,  odds,  and  pains,  authorities  are  divided,  and  it  is 
really  indifferent  whether  they  take  a  singular  or  a  plural 
verb,  provided  the  two  constructions  are  not  mixed. 
When,  therefore,  a  nominative  is  singular  in  form  merely; 
and  has  a  distinctly  plural  meaning,  it  should  be  followed 
by  a  plural  verb.  "The  greater  number  of  such  periods 
is  ungraceful  and  obscure,"  should  be :  "  The  greater 
number  of  such  periods  are  ungraceful  and  obscure."  A 
general  term,  on  the  contrary,  is  erroneously  separated 
into  its  component  parts  in  the  following :  "  It  gives 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  IO/ 

pain  to  the  mind  and  memory,  and  exposes  the  unskill- 
ful hearer,  to  mingle  the  particulars  together.  It  leads 
them  into  a  thick  wood,  instead  of  into  open  daylight" 
Here  the  pronoun  them  grammatically  refers  to  particulars, 
which  makes  a  nonsensical  construction.  Them  is  meant 
to  refer  to  hearers,  but  the  antecedent  is  hearer.  The 
sentence  should  read  thus  :  "  It  gives  pain  to^  the  mind 
and  memory,  and  exposes  the  unskillful  hearer  to  mingle 
the  particulars  together ;  it  leads  him  into  a  thick  wood 
instead  of  into  open  daylight." 

In  the  annexed  sentences  the  distributives  each,  every, 
eitlier,  neither,  are  improperly  followed  by  the  plural  of  the 
verb:  "I  am  not  positive  that  either  of  us  were  there;" 
"  How  far  each  of  the  three  "epic  poets  have  distinguished 
themselves;"  "Neither  bear  any  sign  of  case ;"  "  Let  every 
one  please  themselves?  These  expressions  should  read 
thus :  "I  am  not  certain  that  eithet  of  us  was  there ;"  "  How 
far  each  of  the  three  epic  poets  lias  distinguished  himself;" 
"Neither  bears  any  sign  of  case;"  "Let  every  one  please 
himself''  As  well  as,  and  none  always  take  the  singular. 
Hence  it  is  incorrect  to  say :  "  Homer  as  well  as  Virgil  were 
studied."  It  should  be:  "  Homer  as  well  as  Virgil  was 
studied."  None  [no  one]  have  come,"  should  be:  "  None 
has  come."  After  a  singular  noun  or  pronoun  and  not 
takes  a  singular  verb.  "  My  poverty,  and  not  my  will,  con- 
sent," should  be :  "  My  poverty,  and  not  my  will,  consents" 

"  Full  many  a  flower  are  born  to  blush  unseen,"  is  in- 
correct, and  should  read  :  "  Full  many  a  flower  is  born 
to  blush  unseen;"  the  rule  being  that  many  a  properly 
takes  the  singular.  In  the  annexed  couplet,  many  a  is 
wrongly  followed  by  the  plural : 

"  And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews 
That  teach  the  rustic  moralist 


IOS  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

In  the  second  line  of  the  couplet  teach  grammatically 
considered,  should  be  teaches,  although  it  would  ruin  the 
rhythm. 

The  preposition  with  may  properly  be  followed  by 
either  the  singular  or  the  plural ;  as,  "  Prosperity  with 
humility  renders  its  possessor  amiable."  Here  "  with 
humility"  is  regarded  as  a  modification  of  " prosperity." 
But  when  two  or  more  things  act  together ;  as,  "  The 
President,  with  the  Cabinet  and  the  Congress,  form  a  good 
government,"  the  plural  is  correct. 

WRONG  MOOD  AND  TENSE.  The  most  frequent  errors 
in  the  use  of  English  resulting  from  the  use  of  wrong 
moods  and  tenses  may  be  avoided  by  attention  to  the 
following  rules: 

1.  Be  careful  to  discriminate  between  the  indefinite 
past,  and  the  perfect.     Remember  that  the  latter  brings 
the  close  of  the  action  down  to  the  time  of  speaking;  as, 
"  I  ate  my  breakfast  at  ten  o'clock  A.  M.  to-day  and  now 
I  have  just  finished   my  dinner."     The   perfect  cannot 
accordingly  be   properly  applied  to  an  event  which  is 
referred  to  as  complete  at  a  past  date;  as,  "You  may 
do    what    you  Jiave  done  a    year  ago."     Corrected    this 
should  read:  "You  may  do  what  you  did a.  year  ago." 
"  Our  club  has  begun  last  Monday,"  should  be :  "  Our  club 
began  last  Monday."     The  past  perfect  tense  marks  an 
event  occurring  at  a  definite  time.     "  He  had  lost  his  wife 
while  he  was  Governor  of  Nevada,"  should  be:  "He  lost 
his  wife  while  he  was  Governor  of  Nevada;"  or,  "  He  had 
lost  his  wife  when  he  was  Governor  of  Nevada." 

2.  Observe  the  sequence  of  tenses  :     A   past  tense 
generally   goes  with    a   past   tense ;    a    present   with   a 
present  or  a  future  tense.     The  following  examples  will 
illustrate  the  rule  :  "  No  writer  would  write  a  book  unless 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  109 

he  thinks  it  will  be  read."  Here  the  proper  construction 
would  be  :  "  No  writer  would  write  a  book  unless  he 
thought  it  would  be  read,"  or  else  :  "  No  writer  -will  write 
a  book  unless  he  thinks  it  ivill  be  read."  "  Before  six 
months  were  past  the  paper  was  known  in  almost  every 
town  ;  while  at  the  limits  of  the  country  it  circulates 
every  morning."  The  correct  form  would  be  :  "  Before 
six  months  were  past  the  paper  was  known  in  almost 
every  town,  while  at  the  limits  of  the  country  it  was 
circulated  every  morning."  The  following  sentence  is 
incorrect :  "  But  the  influences  under  which  its  institu- 
tions were  to  have  been  formed  will  no  longer  be  ex- 
clusively American ;"  and  should  read :  "But  the  influences 
under  which  its  institutions  are  to  be  formed  will  no 
longer  be  exclusively  American."  "  A  week  elapses 
before  the  carrier  returns,  and  so  it  will  frequently 
happen  that  a  mail  steamer  for  Europe  shall  have  de- 
parted," is  incorrect,  and  should  be  :  "A  week  elapses 
before  the  carrier  returns,  and  so  it  frequently  happens 
that  a  mail  steamer  for  Europe  has  departed." 

We  may  in  vivid  narrative  describe  past  scenes  and 
events  as  if  they  were  actually  before  us  ;  as,  "When  the 
bark  of  Columbus  nears  the  shore  of  America,  can  we 
separate  the  man  from  the  living  picture  :  does  riot  the 
new  world  clothe  his  form  with  her  palm  groves  and 
savannahs  ?" 

The  use  of  the  infinitive  after  a  principal  verb  requires 
attention.  When  it  expresses  that  which  is  either  future 
or  contemporary  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  principal 
verb,  whether  that  verb  be  in  the  present  or  the  past 
tense,  it  should  be  in  the  present ;  as,  "I  intend  to  write;" 
"  He  intended  to  write;"  "He  seems  to  be  a  literary 
man;"  "He  appears  to  have  studied;"  "He  appeared 


IIO  ECLECTIC    GRAMMAR. 

to  study;"  "Pie  appeared  to  have  studied."  These  are 
all  correct  expressions.  But,  "  I  found  him  belter  than 
I  expected  to  have  found  him,"  is  not  correct.  It  is 
similar  to  saying  :  "  It  is  long  since  I  commanded  him 
to  have  done  it."  The  sentences  should  read  :  "  I  found 
him  better  than  I  expected  &?j£ftdf  him;"  and  "It  is  long 
since  I  commanded  him  to  do  it."  The  error  may  be 
further  illustrated  in  the  following  examples  :  "  I  ex- 
pected from  the  promises  of  the  Governor  to  have  seen 
the  bank  paying  in  gold  ;"  "  They,  supposing  him  to  have 
been  in  the  company,  went  a  day's  journey;"  "  Had  this 
been  the  fate  of  Tasso,  he  would  have  been  able  to  have 
celebrated!'  Corrected,  these  sentences  would  be :  "I 
expected  from  the  promises  of  the  Governor  to  see  the 
bank  paying  in  gold;"  "They,  supposing  him  to  be  in 
the  company,  went  a  day's  journey;"  "Had  this  been 
the  fate  of  Tasso,  he  would  have  been  able  to  celebrated 

The  same  rule  is  applicable  to  the  participle ;  as,  "When 
I  wrote  that  letter  I  //<?^not  the  pleasure  ofhearinghis  sen- 
timents." Properly  constructed  the  sentence  should  read 
thus:  "  When  I  wrote  that  letter  I  had  not  the  pleasure  of 
having  heard  his  sentiments,"  or,  "  When  I  wrote  that 
letter  I  had  not  had  \hc.  pleasure  Shearing  his  sentiments." 

Where  there  are  two  clauses,  one  subordinate  to  the 
other,  we  should  carry  our  thoughts  back  to  the  time  of 
the  principal  verb,  and  then  consider  what  relation  the 
time  of  the  subordinate  verb  bears  to  it. 

To,  which  usually  precedes  the  infinitive,  in  prose  com- 
position is  omitted  after  the  auxiliary  verbs,  and  also 
after  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  and  make;  but  poetry  some- 
times assumes  the  license  of  introducing  it;  as, 

"Bid  me  to  live,  and  I  will  live 
Thy  Protestant  to  be." 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  Ill 

An  elliptical  expression  after  an  auxiliary,  is  often  a 
source  of  error;  as,  "The  following  facts  may,  or  have 
been  adduced  as  reasons."  In  this  sentence  may  has  no 
concord  with  have  been,  and  it  should  read  thus :  "  The 
following  facts  may  be,  or  have  been  adduced  as  reasons." 
Instead  of  saying,  "  The  book  has,  is,  or  will  be  pub- 
lished," we  should  say :  "  The  book  has  been,  is  being;  or 
will  be  published."  The  sentence,  "  Religious  principle 
is  the  only  power  that  ever  'has  or  ever  will  combat  these 
seductions,"  is  wrong,  and  should  read :  "  Religious  prin- 
ciple is  the  only  power  that  ever  has  combated,  or  ever 
'will  combat  these  seductions.''  "  Polygamy  never  has  and 
never  can  be  a  vice  of  the  great  body  of  the  people," 
should  read :  "  Polygamy  never  has  been,  and  never  can  be, 
a  vice  of  the  great  body  of  the  people." 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  seldom  used  by  some 
writers.  "  If  it  is,"  "  If  it  be,"  "  If  it  rains,"  "  If  it  rain," 
are  used  almost  indifferently.  But  the  following  general 
rules  may  be  given  :  Use  the  indicative  where  there  is 
no  real  uncertainty  about  the  condition  being  fulfilled  ; 
as,  "//"virtue  is  good."  Use  the  subjunctive  where  you 
disbelieve  in  the  condition  being  realized,  or  protest 
against  its  acceptance  ;  as,  "//"virtue  feeble  were ;"  "If 
she  be  a  traitor,  why,  so  am  I  ;"  "//"  he  desert  his  friends 
to  save  himself,  he  is  a  coward."  The  subjunctive  may 
be  used  with  propriety  in  reference  to  future  events  about 
which  there  must  be  doubt;  as,  "//"  thou  read  this, 
O  Caesar!  thou  mayst  live."  Also  after  though;  as, 
"Though  the  world  frown,  I  care  not;"  also  after  might, 
would,  could,  or  should.  We  should  not  say,  "  Of 
his  prose  we  might  say  much  that  was  favorable,"  but 
rather:  "Of  his  prose  we  might  say  much  that  would  be 
favorable." 


112  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

Concerning  the  subjunctive  mood,  which  is  a  source 
of  much  confusion,  Goold  Brown,  in  his  "  Grammar  of 
Grammars,"  says  :  "  The  idea  of  a  subjunctive  mood  in 
the  indicative  form  is  utterly  inconsistent  with  any  just 
notion  of  what  a  mood  is,  and  the  suggestion  which  we 
frequently  meet  with,  that  the  regular  indicative,  or 
potential  mood,  may  be  thrown  into  the  subjunctive  by 
merely  prefixing  a  conjunction,  is  something  worse,  than 
nonsense.  Indeed,  no  mood  can  ever  be  made  a  part  of 
another  mood  without  the  grossest  confusion  and  ab- 
surdity. Yet,  strange  as  it  is,  some  celebrated  authors, 
misled  by  an  if,  have  tangled  three  of  them  together, 
producing  such  a  snarl  of  tenses  as  never  yet  can  have 
been  understood  without  being  thoroughly  ridiculous. 
The  true  subjunctive  mood  in  English  is  virtually  re- 
jected by  some  later  grammarians,  who,  nevertheless, 
acknowledge  under  that  name  a  greater  number  and 
variety  of  forms  than  has  ever  been  claimed  for  it  in  any 
other  tongue.  All  that  is  peculiar  to  the  subjunctive, 
all  that  should  constitute  it  a  distinct  mood,  they  repre- 
sent as  archaism,  an  obsolete  or  antiquated  mode  of  ex- 
pression, while  they  willingly  give  to  it  every  form  of 
both  the  indicative  and  the  potential,  the  two  other 
moods  which  sometimes  follow  an  if"  etc. 

MISCELLANEOUS.  A  singular  and  a  plural  nomina- 
tive, connected  by  a  disjunctive  particle,  require  a  verb 
in  the  plural,  and  the  plural  nominative  should  be  placed 
next  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors 
were  saved." 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  noun 
expresses  unity  or  plurality.  It  is  now  generally  con- 
sidered better  to  use  the  plural  where  the  singular  is  not 
manifestly  required. 


ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR.  113 

When  men  and  women  are  included  in  a  reference, 
the  pronoun,  being  in  the  singular,  should  be  masculine. 
This  usage  is  allowed  because  the  English  language  is 
destitute  of  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person  singular 
which  may  apply  to  either  sex,  and  because  the  mascu- 
line is  presumed  to  be  the  better  representative  of  both 
sexes. 

The  preposition  for,  when  employed  to  express  motive 
or  purpose,  should  not  be  used  before  the  infinitive  ;  as, 
"  He  went  for  to  see  her."  It  should  read  :  "  He  went  to 
see  her." 

Leave,  which  is  transitive,  is  often  misused  as  an  in- 
transitive verb ;  as,  "  I  shall  leave  to-day,"  instead  of 
"  I  shall  leave  the  city  to-day." 

SUBJECT — PREDICATE.  The  grammatical  term  for 
that  which  is  spoken  of  is  the  subject ;  that  which  is  said 
about  the  subject  is  called  the  predicate. 

A  Clause  is  that  section  of  a  sentence  which  contains 
both  a  subject  and  its  predicate. 

A  Phrase  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  which  may  contain 
either  a  subject  or  a  predicate,  but  cannot  contain  both. 

NEUTER  VERBS,  as  well  as  nouns,  if  quantity  and  not 
manner  is  expressed,  should  be  qualified  by  adjectives 
rather  than  by  adverbs ;  as,  "It  sounds  loud"  not  "loudly" 
"She  looks  beautiful"  not  "beautifully"  The  error  ot 
employing  the  adverb  instead  of  the  adjective  in  such 
cases  arises  from  a  misapprehension  of  the  meaning  of 
the  verb  to  look  in  this  phraseology.  It  here  has  its 
strictly  neuter  meaning  of  seeming.  It  does  not  mean 
the  act  of  looking,  but  the  fact  of  appearing ;  and 
all  question  about  the  accuracy  of  the  phrases  cited 
will  disappear  when  the  proper  meaning  is  made  plain 
by  a  substituted  word.  For  example,  no  one  would 


114  ECLECTIC    GRAMMAR. 

think  of  saying :  "  He  seems  beautifully."  Adverbs 
qualify  what  is  done  ;  adjectives,  what  is  or  seems  to  be. 

Is  BEING.  Relative  to  the  grammatical  accuracy  of  the 
use  of  the  verbal  form  is  being,  the  authorities  are  divided. 
The  Reverend  Peter  Bullions,  in  his  "Grammar  of  the 
English  Language,"  says:  "There  is  properly  no  pas- 
sive form,  in  English,  corresponding  to  the  progressive 
form  in  the  active  voice,  except  where  it  is  made  "by  the 
participle  ing  in  a  passive  tense;  thus.  'The  house  is 
building',  '  The  garments  are  making!  '  Wheat  is  selling' 
etc.  An  attempt  has  been  made  by  some  grammarians,  of 
late,  to  banish  such  expressions  from  the  language,  though 
they  have  been  used  in  all  time  past,  by  the  best  writers, 
and  to  justify  and  defend  a  clumsy  solecism,  which  has 
been  recently  introduced,  chiefly  through  the  newspaper 
press,  but  which  has  gained  such  currency,  and  is  becoming 
so  familiar  to  the  ear,  that  it  seems  likely  to  prevail, 
with  all  its  uncouthness  and  deformity.  I  refer  to  such 
expressions  as,  '  The  house  is  being  built; '  *  The  letter  is 
being  written  ;'  '  The  mine  is  being  worked ; '  '  The  news 
is  being  telegraphed,'  etc.  This  mode  of  expression 
had  no  existence  in  the  language  till  within  the  last  fifty 
years.  [Bullions' Grammar  was  published  in  1867.]  This, 
indeed  would  not  make  the  expression  wrong  were  it 
otherwise  unexceptional;  but  its  recent  origin  shows 
that  it  is  not,  as  is  pretended,  a  necessary  form."  The 
Reverend  Mr.  Bullions  is  supported  in  his  views  by  Pro- 
fessor L.  T.  Townsend,  Richard  Grant  White,  George  P. 
Marsh,  and  Dr.  Fitzedward  Hall.  The  weight  of  authority 
is  undoubtedly  against  the  use  of  is  being,  but  it  appears 
to  be  sanctioned  by  custom. 

DOUBLE  NEGATIVES  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative. 
The  Greek  and  the  Latin  idiom  by  which  they  strengthen 


ECLECTIC  GRAMMAR.  11$ 

a  negation  is  not  applicable  to  the  English  language. 
The  Shakespearean  license,  "  Be  not  too  tame  neither/! 
is  obsolete.  Such  expressions  as  :  "  Neither  William  nor 
Alfred  never  gave  John  permission  ;"  "Do  not  loan  him 
none  of  your  books  ;"  "  It  will  not  rain  I  do  not  think," 
are  ungrammatical,  and  should  be :  "  Neither  William 
nor  Alfred  ever  gave  John  permission;"  "Do  not  loan 
him  any  of  your  books;"  "  I  do  not  think  it  will  rain." 

Ever,  Never,  etc.,  are  adverbs  which  are  often  mis- 
placed ;  as,  "  We  never  remember  to  have  seen  it."  The 
correct  constructon  is  :  "We  cannot  remember  ever  to 
have  seen  it." 

The  Pronoun  Them  is  frequently  misused  for  these  or 
those;  as,  "  Them  boys  are  large."  Here  the  correct 
usage  would  be:  "  77wse  boys  are  large,"  or,  "  These  boys 
are  large." 

Me,  Him,  and  Them,  the  objective  cases  of  the  per- 
sonal pronouns  /,  he,  and  they,  are  often  incorrectly  used 
for  the  possessive  forms,  my,  his,  and  their;  as,  "  I  do  not 
like  him  staying  out  so  late  at  night."  The  sentence 
should  be:  "I  do  not  like  his  staying  out  so  late  at  night." 
These  sentences  convey  entirely  different  ideas.  We  infer 
from  the  former,  that  the  person  referred  to  is  not  liked 
when  staying  out  late  at  night,  but  that  he  is  liked  when 
not  staying  out  late  at  night.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
idea  intended  to  be  expressed.  What  the  speaker  dis- 
likes is  not  the  person  when  staying  out  late  at  night, 
but  the  person's  staying  out  late  at  night.  The  use  of 
him  and  them  or  his  and  their  depends  upon  the 
idea  sought  to  be  conveyed.  "  I  saw  him  dancing," 
means  that  I  saw  him,  and  he  was  dancing.  "  I  saw  his 
dancing,"  means,  that  I  saw  and  noted  the  quality  of  his 
dancing.  "  I  did  not  notice  them  passing,"  means  that 


Il6  ECLECTIC   GRAMMAR. 

as  they  passed,  I  did  not  take  any  notice  of  them.  "  I 
did  not  notice  their  passing,"  means,  that  their  passing 
escaped  my  observation. 

You  Was,  though  often  heard,  is  incorrect,  because 
you,  being  the  plural  form  of  the  pronoun,  requires  the 
plural  form  of  the  verb.  "  You  were  "  is  the  correct  ex- 
pression. 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC 


117 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC 


A  familiarity  with  words  and  the  difference  in  their 
meaning  as  taught  in  the  "  Vocabulary,"  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  Etymology  and  Syntax,  as  explained 
in  the  section  on  "  Eclectic  Grammar,"  are  not  all  of  the 
essential  elements  in  the  art  of  composition.  We  may 
possess  an  excellent  command  of  language,  be  able  to 
speak  and  write  with  grammatical  accuracy,  and  yet  be 
unable  to  express  ourselves  intelligibly.  It  is  the  prov- 
ince of  rhetoric  to  teach  us  the  higher  attributes  of 
style,  that  in  conversation  or  writing  our  ideas  may  be 
characterized  by  clearness,  brevity,  and  strength.  We 
purpose,  in  this  section  of  our  book,  to  treat  the  subject 
of  rhetoric  in  a  philosophical  rather  than  a  pedantic  spirit, 
and  with  particular  reference  to  the  principles  applicable 
to  prose  composition.  Due  attention  will  also  be  given 
to  the  rules  relative  to  purity,  propriety,  harmony,  and 
unity  of  style,  the  laws  of  versification,  punctuation,  etc. 
Primarily  the  word  rhetoric,  which  is  derived  from  the 
Greek,  had  reference  solely  to  the  art  of  oratory,  but  now 
it  has  a  far  wider  significance.  The  chief  ends  of  language, 
whether  spoken  or  written,  are  to  inform,  to  persuade,  to 
please,  and  all  are  comprehended  in  the  study  of  rhetoric. 
We  may  appropriately  begin  our  treatment  of  the  subject 
with  a  definition  of  terms. 

119 


120  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

STYLP;  relates  to  thought  as  well  as  to  language,  and 
is  lucidly  defined  by  Professor  Mathews  to  be  "  such  a 
choice  and  arrangement  of  words  as  shall  convey  the 
author's  meaning  most  clearly  and  exactly  in  the  logical 
order  of  the  ideas  ;  secondly,  such  a  balance  of  clause 
and  structural  grace  of  sentence  as  shall  satisfy  the  sense 
of  beauty;  and,  lastly,  such  a  propriety,  economy,  and 
elegance  of  expression  as  shall  combine  business-like 
brevity  with  artistic  beauty."  "  Style,"  says  Professor 
Nichol,  "  is  the  art  of  choosing  words,  setting  them  in 
sentences,  and  arranging  sentences  in  paragraphs.  It  is 
the  architecture  of  thought.  *  *  *  *  Style  varies 
to  suit  the  circumstances  of  various  nations  and  men, 
and  the  temper  and  manner  in  which  we  handle  various 
subjects.  *  *  *  *  As  different  occasions  call  for 
different  conduct,  so  different  themes  demand  differ- 
ent treatment.  *  *  *  Style  should  be  as  natural 
as  dress,  and  fit  the  time,  the  place,  and  the  person,  as  a 
glove  fits  the  hand." 

DICTION  is  similar  to  Style,  but  relates  to  language 
only.  It  is  a  general  term  applicable  alike  to  a  single 
sentence,  or  to  a  connected  composition.  In  a  rhetorical 
sense,  it  applies  more  particularly  to  the  selection  and 
use  of  words. 

BARBARISM.  The  use  of  an  impure  word  is  termed  a 
barbarism. 

SOLECISM.  An  impure  construction  is  called  a  sole- 
cism. 

THE  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE  are  Purity,  Propriety, 
Precision,  Clearness  or  Perspicuity,  Strength,  Harmony, 
and  Unity. 

PURITY  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  and  construc- 
tions, as  properly  belong  to  the  genius  of  the  language. 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC.  121 

It  may  be  violated  by  the  use  of  the  barbarism  or  the 
solecism. 

PROPRIETY  is  the  avoiding  of  vulgarisms,  or  undig- 
nified and  low  expressions,  and  the  employing  of  words 
only  in  such  acceptations  as  are  authorized  by  good  usage. 

PRECISION  lies  in  the  use  of  such  words  as  convey  the 
exact  meaning,  and  nothing  more.  It  is  often  violated 
by  a  lack  of  discrimination  in  the  use  of  words  seemingly 
synonymous. 

CLEARNESS  OR  PERSPICUITY  implies  the  use  and  ar- 
rangement of  such  words  and  clauses,  as  distinctly  indicate 
the  meaning  of  the  writer.  The  faults  opposed  to  clear- 
ness arc  obscurity,  equivocation,  and  ambiguity. 

STRENGTH  lies  in  the  rejection  of  all  superfluous  words, 
the  judicious  arrangement  of  important  words,  the  logical 
construction  of  ideas,  etc. 

HARMONY  is  the  smooth  and  easy  flow  which  pleases 
the  ear,  and  consists  in  the  use  and  arrangement  of  eu- 
phonious words,  and  the  adaptation  of  sound  to  sense 

UNITY  requires  the  restriction  of  a  sentence  to  one 
leading  proposition,  modified  by  only  such  accessories  as 
are  materially  and  closely  connected  with  it. 

RHETORICAL  FIGURES.  The  principal  rhetorical  fig- 
ures, sixteen  in  number,  arc  Simile,  Metaphor,  Apostro- 
phe, Hyperbole,  Metonymy,  Synecdoche,  Personification, 
Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Antithesis,  Vision  or  Im- 
agery, Irony,  Paralipsis  or  Omission,  Onomatopoeia,, 
Allegory,  and  Climax. 

SIMILE  is  the  comparison  of  one  object  to  another, 
and  is  generally  denoted  by  like,  as,  or  so.  Example: 
"  He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  water." 

METAPHOR  indicates  the  resemblance  of  two  objects 
by  the  application  of  the  name,  attribute,  or  act  of  one 


122  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

directly  to  the  other ;    as,  "  He  shall  be  a  tree  planted  by 
the  water." 

APOSTROPHE  is  the  turning  from  the  regular  source 
of  a  subject  into  an  invocation  or  address;  as,  "O  death, 
where  is  thy  sting?  O  grave,  where  is  thy  victory?" 

HYPERBOLE  implies  the  exaggeration  of  attributes,  or 
the  assigning  to  a  subject  of  a  wonderful  or  impossible  act 
as  the  result  of  ardent  emotion;  as,  "And  trembling 
Tiber  dived  beneath  his  bed." 

METONYMY  is  the  exchange  of  names  between  things 
related ;  as,  "  Gray  hairs  (old  age)  should  be  respected." 

SYNECDOCHE  consists  in  the  use  of  the  name  of  a  part 
for  that  of  the  whole,  or  of  the  name  of  the  whole  for 
that  of  a  part,  or  of  a  definite  for  an  indefinite  number. 
Example:  "A  sail  (ship)  approaches." 

PERSONIFICATION  is  the  attributing  of  sex,  life,  or 
action  to  an  inanimate  object,  or  the  ascribing  of  intelli- 
gence or  personality  to  an  inferior  creature;  as,  "The 
worm,  aware  of  his  intent,  harangued  him  thus,"  etc. 

INTERROGATION  indicates  the  asking  of  questions,  not 
for  the  purpose  of  expressing  doubt  or  obtaining  infor- 
mation, but  to  assert  strongly  the  reverse  of  what  is 
asked  ;  as,  "Does  God  pervert  judgment?" 

EXCLAMATION  lies  in  the  expression  of  some  strong 
emotion  of  the  mind  ;  as,  "  Oh  !  the  wisdom  and  mercy 
of  God  ! " 

.  ANTITHESIS  is  the  placing  of  opposites  in  juxtaposition 
for  the  purpose  of  heightening  their  effect  by  contrast ; 
as,  "  Though  grave,  yet  trifling ;  zealous,  yet  untrue." 

VISION  OR  IMAGERY  implies  the  representation  of  past 
events,  or  imaginary  scenes  and  objects,  as  actually  pres- 
ent to  the  senses  ;  as,  "  Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the 
Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy." 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    RHETORIC.  123 

IRONY  consists  in  the  expression  of  the  reverse  of 
what  is  intended  ;  as,  "  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god,"  etc. 

PARALIPSIS,  or  OMISSION  is  the  pretended  suppression 
of  what  is  actually  mentioned  ;  as,  "  I  say  notliing  of  the 
notorious  profligacy  of  his  character." 

ONOMATOPOEIA  indicates  the  use  of  a  word  or  phrase 
formed  to  imitate  the  sound  of  the  thing  signified  ;  as 
"  The  buss  of  the  bees  ;"  "  The  hiss  of  the  serpents." 

ALLEGORY  lies  in  the  narration  of  fictitious  events 
for  the  purpose  of  conveying  or  illustrating  important 
truths.  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  by  John  Bunyan,  for  ex- 
ample, is  an  allegory. 

CLIMAX  is  the  arrangement  of  a  succession  of  words> 
clauses,  members,  or  sentences  in  such  a  way  that  the 
weakest  shall  stand  first,  and  that  each,  in  turn,  to 
the  end  of  the  sentence,  shall  rise  in  importance,  and 
thus  make  a  deeper  impression  on  the  mind  than  that 
which  preceded  it  ;  as,  "  Shall  tribulation,  or  persecution, 
or  famine,  or  the  sword  ?"  etc. 

THE  CLIMAX  OF  SOUND  lies  in  the  arrangement  of  a 
series  of  words  or  clauses  according  to  their  length,  so 
that  the  shortest  shall  come  first ;  as,  "  He  was  a  good, 
noble,  disinterested  man." 

EPIGRAM  may  be  defined  as  a  short  sentence  express- 
ing truth  under  an  amusing  appearance  of  incongruity; 
as,  "You  are  not  only  vicious,  you  are  virtuous ;"  "The 
statues  of  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  conspicuous  by  their 
absence" 

PURITY. 

Every  violation  of  purity  is  termed  a  barbarism,  and 
may  be  attributed  to  : 

i.     The  use  of  obsolete  words. 


124  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

2.  The  use  of  provincial,  or  slang  words  or  expres- 
sions. 

3.  The  general  use  of  technical  terms. 

4.  The  use  of  foreign  words,  and  phrases. 

5.  The  use  of  newly  coined  words. 

6.  The  use  of  solecisms. 

OBSOLETE  WORDS.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  say 
when  a  word  has  become  obsolete,  for  words  may  be  re- 
called when  on  the  verge  of  banishment.  Obsolete  words 
are  occasionally  used  in  poetry,  in  burlesque,  and  in  nar- 
ratives of  ancient  times,  where,  as  they  harmonize  with 
the  characters  and  objects  delineated,  they  are  peculiarly 
appropriate.  In  all  other  composition,  however,  they 
should  be  shunned.  "  \{  per  adventure  he  should  deny  my 
request."  Here  the  word  peradventure  is  obsolete,  and 
should  give  place  to  a  current  English  word  such  as  per- 
chance. 

THE  USE  OF  PROVINCIAL  OR  SLANG  WORDS,  and 
phrases,  although  sometimes  tolerated  in  conversation, 
should  be  generally  avoided  in  written  composition. 
But  it  is  permissible  to  employ  them  grammatically,  as  in 
the  Irish  and  Welsh  of  Shakespeare,  the  Scotch  of  Scott, 
and  the  Cockney  dialect  of  Dickens.  In  the  sentence 
"  I  calculate  I  shall  go,"  calculate  is  a  provincialism.  When 
we  say,  " / sJiould  smile"  although  the  words  are  correct 
in  themselves,  we  are  guilty,  in  their  use,  of  a  slang  ex- 
pression. 

TECHNICAL  TERMS,  however  appropriately  applied  in 
special  departments  of  thought  and  to  special  things, 
are  likely  to  appear  vulgar  or  pedantic  when  employed  in 
every-day  life.  Such  words  as  quadrate,  connotation,  pre- 
cognition,  diiaroscuro,  dynamic,  apperception,  and  remem- 
brancer come  under  this  head. 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  12$ 

FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES,  although  allowable 
when  they  fill  a  void  in  our  language,  should  not  be  used 
in  place  of  equally  expressive  English  terms.  The  fol- 
lowing may  be  mentioned  as  illustrative  of  this  class 
of  words  and  phrases:  politesse,  cafe,  sortie,  fracas^ 
cmeute,  volupte,  confreres,  vraisemblance,  tout  ensemble, 
amour-propre,  noblesse  oblige,  fair  accompli,  dernier  ressort, 
coup  detat,  raison  d'etre,  etc.  Writers  of  foreign  travel 
and  novelists  may  be  granted  considerable  license  in  the 
use  of  these  terms. 

The  use  of  foreign  idioms,  as,  "//  repents  me,"  for 
"/  repent"  etc.,  also  constitutes  a  violation  of  purity. 

NEWLY  COINED  WORDS  should  be  very  cautiously 
employed.  New  thoughts  may  require  new  forms,  but 
a  word  should  never  be  invented  when  others  now  ex- 
isting will  serve  the  purpose.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  words  be  coined  by  young  writers.  The  correct 
principle  has  been  happily  stated  by  Pope  in  his  "  Essay 
on  Criticism  : " 

"  In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold  ; 
Alike  fantastic,  if  too  new  or  old  ; 
Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside." 

Tr^e  following  may  be  cited  as  representatives  of  the 
class  of  newly  coined  words  :  Obversely,  scientist,  con- 
catenate, conserve,  disemasculate,  fictional,  skeletonize,  bur- 
glarise, martyrise,  apotheosed,peripatetician,  undevelopment, 
incumberment,  protended,  unsuccessf illness,  suicided,  adore- 
ment,  difficultly,  unanalogical,  and  disgustful. 

Solecisms  appear  in  many  different  forms,  and  in  such 
expressions  as  "  He  sings  a  good  song,"  for  "  He  sings 
well.'2  A  good  song  may  be  badly  sung ;  hence,  the 
meaning  is  different  from  that  expressed. 


126  PHILOSOPHY    OF    RHETORIC. 

Solecisms  of  a  similar  nature  are  involved  in  the  sen- 
tences: "  He  tells  a  good  story;"  "He  plays  a  good 
fiddle." 

The  use  which  gives  law  to  language  is  thus  stated  by 
Dr.  Campbell,  in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric  :" 

1.  "It  must  be  reputable,  or  that  of  educated  people, 
as  opposed  to  that  of  the  ignorant  and  vulgar. 

2.  "  It  must  be  national,  as  opposed  to  what  is  either 
local  or  technical. 

3.  "  It   must  be  present,  as  opposed  to  what  is  obso- 
lete." 

The  making  of  new  compounds,  as  architect-capacity 
mirror-writing,  world-system,  self -practice,  age-distant,  etc., 
is  also  a  violation  of  purity. 

The  affectation  of  using  adjectives  or  adverbs  as  nouns 
is  also  opposed  to  purity  ;  as,  "  We  have  to  do  with 
these  influences  not  in  the  actual,  but  as  expressed  in 
language;"  "We  knew  the  when,  but  we  knew  not  the 
where." 

The  use  of  such  words  as  name-word,  for  noun ;  link- 
word,  for  conjunction;  un-go-tJirough-some-ncss,  for  im- 
penetrability; and  the  words  regretable,  usable,  doable, 
etc.,  all  of  which  are  barbarisms,  is  also  in  violation  of  the 
principles  of  purity. 


PROPRIETY. 

In  the  use  of  language  every  word  and  phrase  should 
convey  the  idea  which  etymology  or  established  usage 
has  prescribed.  When  the  rule  is  violated,  the  result  is 
an  impropriety.  The  main  sources  of  impropriety  are : 

1.  Neglect  of  the  proper  sequence  of  particles. 

2.  Carelessness  as  to  the  meaning  of  sentences. 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  I2/ 

The  following  examples  illustrate  how  propriety  may 
be  violated  by  a  neglect  of  the  proper  sequence  of 
particles:  "  It  was  charactized  with  eloquence,"  "A  tes- 
timonial of  the  merits  of  the  book,"  "  It  was  an  example 
of  the  love  to  form  comparisons,"  "  He  made  an  effort 
for  meeting  them,"  "They  have  no  other  object  but  to 
come,"  "  Some  anomalies  have  never  been  excepted  against 
by  any  writer,"  "  Repetition  is  always  to  be  preferred 
before  obscurity." 

Corrected,  these  expressions  should  read :  "  It  was 
characterized  by  eloquence,"  "  A  testimonial  to  the  merits 
of  the  book,"  "  It  was  an  example  of  the  love  of  forming 
comparisons,"  "  He  made  an  effort  to  meet  them,"  "They 
have  no  object  but  to  come,"  "  Some  anomalies  have 
never  been  taken  exception  to  by  any  writer,"  "  Repetition 
is  always  to  be  preferred  to  obscurity." 

Two  verbs  are  often  followed  by  a  single  preposition 
which  accords  with  only  one  of  them  ;  as,  "  This  duty  is 
repeated  zn&  inculcated  upon  the  reader."  It  is  absurd  to 
say  that  the  duty  is  repeated  upon,  and  the  correct  con- 
struction is:  "This  duty  is  repeated  to  and  inculcated 
upon  the  reader." 

Propriety  requires  the  use  of  such  language  as  is  best 
suited  to  the  idea  to  be  expressed — proper  arrangement 
of  words  in  sentences,  etc. 

Following  are  a  few  examples  of  its  violation  in  this 
respect :  "  While  these  disturbances  were  carrying  on,  the 
mayor  arrived;"  "Of  the  nineteen  tyrants  under  the 
reign  of  Gallienus  there  was  not  one  who  enjoyed  a  life  of 
peace  or  a  natural  deatJi" 

These  sentences  should  read  :  "  While  these  disturb- 
ances were  being  carried  on,  the  mayor  arrived ;"  "Of  the 
nineteen  tyrants  under  the  reign  of  Gallienus  there  was 


128  PHILOSOPHY    OF   RHETORIC. 

not  one  who  had  a  life  of  peace  or  a  natural  death;"  or, 
"  Of  the  nineteen  tyrants  under  the  reign  of  Gallienus 
there  was  not  one  who  enjoyed  a  life  of  peace  or  died  a 
natural  death." 

The  following  carelessly  constructed  sentences  are  also 
violations  of  propriety,  and  show  either  a  gross  confusion 
of  ideas  or  a  lamentable  lack  of  attention :  "  One  man 
was  so  injured  that  his  death  was  despaired  of;"  "  Mon- 
archy stood  prostrate  at  the  foot  of  the  church ;  "  "  Father 
Mathew  in  Ireland,  effected  the  reform  of  Temperance ;  " 
"I  have  not  willfully  committed  the  least  mistake;'* 
"  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark,  and  Olave,  King  of  Norway, 
invaded  England,  and  spreading  themselves  in  bodies  over 
the  kingdom,  committed  many  and  cruel  depredations;" 
"Richelieu's  portrait  was  encircled  by  a  ctown  of  forty 
rays,  in  eacJi  of  wJiicJi  was  the  name  of  the  celebrated 
forty  academicians;"  "If  we  would  see  what  the  abo- 
rigines of  this  country  originally  were,  what  but  for  foreign 
intermixture  they  would  still  have  been,  we  have  only  to 
look  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  south  and  west  of  Ireland  ;}> 
"  Lost,  a  large  Spanish  blue  gentleman's  cloak." 

The  correct  reading  of  these  sentences  is  thus  :  "  One 
man  was  so  injured  that  his  life  was  despaired  of;" 
"  Monarchy  was  prostrate  at  the  foot  of  the  Church;"  or, 
"  Monarchy /£//  prostrate  at  the  foot  of  the  Church;" 
"  Father  Mathew,  in  Ireland,  effected  the  reform  of  in- 
temperance;" "  I  have  not  knowingly  committed  the  least 
mistake  ;"  "  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark,  and  Olave,  King 
of  Norway,  invaded  England,  and,  spreading  their  armies 
in  bodies  over  the  kingdom,  committed  many  and  cruel 
depredations;"  "Richelieu's  portrait  was  encircled  by  a 
crown  of  forty  rays,  in  each  of  which  was  the  name  of  one 
celebrated  forty  academicians  ;"  "  If  we  would  see 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

what  the  aborigines  of  this  country  originally  were,  what 
but  for  foreign  intermixture  their  descendants  would  still 
be,  we  have  only  to  look  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  south 
and  west  of 'Ireland  ;"  "  Lost,  a  large  blue  Spanish  cloak, 
belonging  to  a  gentleman." 


PRECISION. 

Precision  is  often  violated  by  a  lack  of  discrimination 
in  the  use  of  synonymous  words.  The  English  language 
contains  but  a  limited  number  of  real  synonyms,  the 
words,  so  called,  generally  merely  resembling  one  another 
in  meaning  without  coinciding,  and  having  usually  well- 
defined  shades  of  difference.  The  principle  has  been 
treated  in  detail  in  the  "Vocabulary."  Its  observance' 
is  essential  to  exactitude  of  style. 

Precision  is  also  violated  by  the  substitution  of  the 
terms  ordinarily  applied  to  abstract  ideas  for  the  names 
of  persons.  Shaftesbury,  for  example,  writing  of  Aris- 
totle, names  him  only  as  "the  master  critic,"  "the  mighty 
genius  and  judge  of  art,"  "the  prince  of  critics,"  "the 
grand  master  of  art,"  and  "  the  consummate  philologist," 
thus  confusing  the  reader  and  leaving  him  in  doubt  as  to 
who  is  meant  by  these  high-sounding  titles. 

The  precise  writer  rejects  all  unnecessary  words  ;  he 
does  not  say  that  such  a  thing  cannot  possibly  be,  or 
must  necessarily  be,  because  possibly  and  necessarily  imply 
nothing  more  than  can  and  must.  He  does  not,  after 
making  a  statement,  repeat  it  without  any  modifications 
of  the  idea,  in  several  different  clauses.  Such  unmean- 
ing repetitions  are  called  redundancies,  which  enfeeble 
style  and  violate  precision. 
.  The  following  inconsistent  expression  may  be  cited 


130  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

under  this  head  :  "It  will  invariably  be  found  to  be  the 
case,  as  a  rule,  that  when  a  fine  sentiment  comes  from 
his  pen  it  is  not  his  own." 

Here   either  the  word  invariably  or  the  phrase  as  a 
rule  should  be  omitted. 


CLEARNESS  OR  PERSPICUITY. 

Clearness  or  perspicuity  implies,  in  general,  the  absence 
of  any  obscurity  or  ambiguity. 

A  sentence  from  which  it  is  difficult  to  gather  any 
meaning  is  said  to  be  obscure. 

A  sentence  that  leaves  a  doubt  between  two  meanings, 
or  is  susceptible  of  more  than  one  interpretation,  is 
ambiguous. 

All  of  the  parts  of  speech,  if  carelessly  used,  are  likely 
to  be  misconstrued,  and  thus  cause  ambiguity.  "  His 
presence  was  against  him."  It  is  impossible  to  determine, 
from  the  construction  of  this  sentence,  whether  the  word 
presence  is  used  in  the  sense  of  appearance,  or  as  the 
opposite  of  absence. 

"  I  will  have  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice"  Here  sacrifice^ 
which  is  used  as  a  noun,  might  be  mistaken  for  a 
verb,  in  which  case  it  would  mean:  "  I  will  have  mercy, 
and  will  not  sacrifice"  "Our  sympathies  are  divided 
as  to  the  revolting  Arabs."  We  are  left  in  doubt  whether 
revolting,  as  used  in  this  sentence,  means  disgusting 
or  rebelling.  "  He  has  a  certain  property  in  the  city." 
We  may  infer  from  this  expression,  that  certain  is  used 
either  in  the  sense  of  specific  or  sure.  "  I  have  long 
since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what  you  do"  Does 
this  mean,  "  I  have  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing 
but  what  you  like; "  or,  "  I  have  long  since  learned 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  131 

to  like  nothing  except  what  is  done  by  you?"  "I  did 
not  speak  yesterday,  as  I  wished  to  have  done!'  The 
speaker  may  mean  either  that  he  did  not  speak  as 
he  wished  to  have  spoken,  or,  that  he  wished  to,  but  did 
not  speak.  "  Two  sisters  want  teaching!'  In  the  language 
of  this  advertisement  there  is  a  double  ambiguity,  both 
verb  and  participle  being  ambiguous.  It  really  means 
that  the  two  sisters  desire  to  teach,  but  it  might  mean 
that  they  wished  to  be  taugJit. 

"  Both  the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  powers  concurred 
in  the  measures."  Reference  is  here  made  to  two  sets  of 
power,  but  the  rule  which,  when  two  things  are  meant, 
prescribes  the  repetition  of  the  article  before  the  second 
of  two  coupled  adjectives  is  broken.  We  say,  "the  pious 
and  the  profane,"  not  "the  pious  and  profane."  The  rule 
is  also  applicable  to  coupled  nouns. 

In  disjunctive  clauses  the  repetition  of  the  disjunctive 
particle  is  not  requisite,  but  it  may  be  employed  for 
emphasis  ;  as,  "  Neither  by  law,  nor  by  right,  nor  by  cus- 
tom can  this  be  maintained." 

The  preposition  of  has  a  double  meaning,  which  is 
illustrated  in  the  expressions  :  "  The  Reformation  of 
Luther;"  "The  love  of  God." 

"He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  Presidency,"  may 
mean  that  he  aimed  at  nothing  lower  than  the  Presidency, 
or  that  he  aimed  at  nothing  else  than  the  Presidency. 

All  not  is  often  misused  for  not  all ;  as,  "All  who  lay 
claim  to  these  virtues  are  not  to  be  depended  on."  The 
sentence  should  read  :  "Not  all  who  lay  claim  to  these 
virtues  are  to  be  depended  on." 

The  slovenly  use  of  relatives  in  English  results  in  much 
ambiguity.  They,  their,  tJiem,  his,  that,  which,  and  /'/  are  a 
source  of  wide  confusion.  Following  are  a  few  examples : 


132  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

"  The  priests  transmitted  to  the  ignorant  popula- 
tion the  instruction  which  they  themselves  were  unable 
to  acquire;"  "Beaumont  was  so  accurate  a  judge  of 
plays,  that  Ben  Jonson,  while  he  lived,  submitted  all 
•his  writings  to  his  censure,  and  'tis  thought  used  his 
judgment  in  correcting,  if  not  contriving,  all  his  plots." 
"  The  sharks  wJio  prey  upon  the  inadvertency  of  young 
heirs  are  more  pardonable  than  those  who  trespass  upon 
the  good  opinion  of  those  who  treat  them  upon  the  foot- 
ing of  choice  and  respect."  "They  were  summoned 
occasionally  by  their  kings,  when  compelled  by  tJteir 
wants  or  tJteir  fears,  to  have  recourse  to  their  aid."  "  I 
cannot  say  how  much  I  delight  to  witness  that  energetic 
spirit  which  distinguishes  the  local  authorities  in  this  town, 
and  w//zV-//  shows  that  that  happy  system  of  local  govern- 
ment to  which  Lord  Carnarvon  has  so  well  alluded,  and 
which  is  quite  as  characteristic  of  this  country,  and  quite 
as  important  to  this  country,  as  the  great  Parliament, 
wkic/i  meets  in  London,  and  which  attracts  the  admira- 
tion of  the  world,  is  worked  efficiently  among  you."  "  If 
it  were  spoken  with  ever  so  great  skill  in  the  actor,  the 
manner  of  uttering  that  sentence  could  have  nothing  in 
//  which  could  strike  any  but  people  of  the  greatest 
humanity;  nay,  people  elegant  and  skillful  in  obser- 
vations upon  *'/." 

Corrected,  these  sentences  would  read  thus:  "The 
priests  were  the  means  of  conveying  instruction  to  a 
population  too  ignorant  to  acquire  it  for  themselves." 
"Beaumont  was  so  accurate  a  judge  of  plays,  that  so 
long  as  he  lived  all  Ben  Jonson's  writings  were  submitted 
to  his  censure.  It  is  thought  that  Jonson  even  used 
Beaumont's  judgment."  "The  sharks  who  prey  upon 
the  inadvertency  of  young  heirs  are  more  pardonable 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  133 

than  the  fellows  who  trespass  upon  the  good  opinion  of 
men  who  graciously  treat  them  with  favor  and  respect." 
"They  were  summoned,  occasionally,  by  their  kings, 
when  the  wants  or  the  fears  of  the  sovereign  compelled 
him  to  have  recourse  to  the  aid  of  his  people."  "  I 
cannot  say  how  much  I  delight  to  witness  the  ener- 
getic spirit  that  distinguishes  the  local  authorities  in 
this  town.  It  shows  that  the  happy  system  of  local 
government  to  which  Lord  Carnarvon  has  so  well  referred, 
a  system  quite  as  characteristic  of  this  country,  and  quite 
as  important  to  this  country,  as  the  great  Parliament, 
which,  in  London,  attracts  the  admiration  of  the  world, 
is  efficiently  worked  among  you."  "  If  it  were  spoken 
with  ever  so  great  skill  in  the  actor,  there  could  be 
nothing  in  the  manner  of  uttering  that  sentence  designed 
to  strike  any  but  people  of  the  greatest  humanity,  people 
elegant  and  skillful  in  observing  such  delicacies  of  ex- 
pression." 

The  errors  resulting  from  a  confusion  of  relatives,  as 
indicated  in  the  examples  cited,  may  be  avoided  by 
attention  to  the  following  precepts: 

1.  Repetition  of  the  antecedent  noun,  or  use  of  an 
equivalent  noun. 

2.  Substitution  of  whereby  for  by  which,  if  for  that, 
what  for  that  which,  or  of  the  participle  for  the  relative 
and  verb. 

3.  The  judicious   use   of    ellipses    in    omitting    the 
relatives. 

4.  Removing  redundancies. 

5.  Altering  the  construction. 

6.  Separating  a  long  sentence  into  short  sentences. 

7.  Turning  indirect  into  direct  quotations. 


134  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

The  ambiguity,  in  the  following  sentences,  is  the  result 
of  a  loose  arrangement : 

"A  self-made  man  arrived  in  California  with  only  one 
shirt  to  his  back,  and  since,  he  has  contrived  to  accumu- 
late over  ten  millions. 

The  meaning  here  intended  is  that  he  contrived  to 
accumulate  over  ten  millions  of  dollars,  but  the  idea  ex- 
pressed is  that  he  contrived  to  accumulate  over  ten  mill- 
ions of  shirts. 

"  The  night  was  very  dark,  and  a  man  came  to  the  aid 
of  some  women  who  heard  a  cry,  and,  splashing  with  a 
broom,  he  saw  the  Jiand  of  a  woman  groaning  on  the 
other  side  of  the  water,  and  he  held  out  the  broom." 

If  we  say  that  he  saw  the  hand  of  a  woman,  who  was 
groaning,  etc.,  the  meaning  will  be  clear,  although  the 
awkwardness  of  the  construction  will  still  remain. 

Squinting  construction,  as  it  is  called,  that  is  to  say,  a 
word  or  an  expression  so  placed  in  the  middle,  of  a 
sentence  that  it  looks  both  ways,  and  may  be  connected 
in  meaning  either  with  what  precedes  or  with  what  fol- 
lows, is  a  common  source  of  ambiguity. 

Following  are  examples:  "Though  some  of  the  Eu- 
ropean rulers  may  be  females,  when  spoken  of  altogether, 
they  may  be  correctly  classified  under  the  denomination 
'kings.'" 

The  sentence  may  mean  that  "  some  of  the  European 
rulers  may  be  females  when  spoken  of  altogether,"  etc., 
or,  "  Though  some  of  the  European  rulers  may  be  fe- 
males, they  may,  when  spoken  of  altogether,  be  correctly 
classified  under  the  denomination  'kings.'" 

"Are  these  designs,  which  any  man,  who  is  born  an 
American,  /;/  any  circumstances,  ought  to  be  ashamed  to 
avow?"  is  equally  objectionable,  and  may  mean  a  "man 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC.  135 

who  in  any  circumstances  is  born  an  American,"  etc.,  or 
thathe  '-oughtnot  in  any  circumstances  to  be  ashamed,  "etc. 

The  proper  construction  is  this :  "  Are  these  designs, 
which  any  man  who  is  born  an  American  ought,  in  any 
circumstances,  to  be  ashamed  to  avow  ? " 

The  ambiguity  arising  from  the  careless  or  ignorant 
use  of  personal  pronouns  is  forcibly  .illustrated  in  the 
following  sentence  :  "  He  told  the  coachman  that  he 
would  be  the  death  of  him  if  he  did  not  take  care  what 
he  was  about  and  mind  what  he  said." 

It  was  here  the  intention  of  the  writer  that  the  he  in 
"he  would  be  the  death,"  should  refer  to  the  coach- 
man, who  would  cause  his  employer  to  lose  his  life  by 
rash  driving,  but  the  reference  might  be  construed  to 
rmean  the  employer. 

OBSCURITY  OF^  STYLE  is  the  result  of  complicated  con- 
struction, verbosity,  excessive  brevity,  etc.,  and  generally 
originates  from  an  indistinctness  of  conception  in  the 
writer  or  speaker.  "  Care  should  be  taken,"  says  Quin- 
tilian,  "  not  that  the  reader  may  understand,  if  he  will, 
but  that  he  must  understand  whether  he  will  or  not." 

Simplicity  is  an  important  element  of  clearness. 
We  should  shun  the  use  of  big  words  when  it  is  possible 
to  express  our  ideas  equally  well  in  plain  idiomatic 
English.  Such  attempts  at  fine  language  as  the  follow- 
ing cannot  be  commended,  and  often  result  in  confusion: 

"The  night,  now  far  advanced,  was  brilliantly  bright 
with  the  radiance  of  astral  and  lunar  effulgence." 

It  is  far  better  to  say,  "  The  night  was  far  advanced, 
and  the  moon  and  stars  were  shining  brightly." 

"  The  letter  is  the  fulmination  of  a  man  of  profound 
convictions.  It  may  not  be  accurate  in  its  collocation 
of  events,  but  it  is  the  outpouring  of  an  earnest  soul." 


136  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

The  sense  here,  stated  with  unaffected  simplicity,  is; 
"It  is  the  letter  of  a  man  of  strong  convictions;  and 
though  perhaps  inaccurate  in  most  of  its  details,  it  com- 
mands respect  by  the  evident  sincerity  of  its  purpose." 

It  is  better  to  say  love  than  to  use  such  periphrases  as, 
the  tender  chords,  or  the  amorous  affection.  TJie  succulent 
bivalve  is  a  bad  substitute  for  oyster,  and  enrage  should 
be  preferred  to  exacerbate ;  he  died  poor,  to  he  expired  in 
indigent  circumstances. 

Persons  and  things,  in  ordinary  prose,  should  be  given 
their  plain  names.  Hence  we  should  not  refer  to  God  as 
''the  occupant  of  the  throne  of  heaven,"  nor  to  Homer 
as  "the  blind  old  bard,"  nor  to  Dante  as  "the  distin- 
guished Florentine,"  nor  to  Milton  as  "the  great  Epic 
Iconoclast,"  nor  to  Shakespeare  as  "the  Swan  of  Avon'\ 
or  "  Gentle  Will,"  nor  to  Dr.  Johnson  as  "the  great  lex- 
icographer." 

When  the  action  referred  to  is  closely  related  to  the 
attribute  named,  the  rule  is  not  applicable ;  as,  "  Shall 
not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right?"  "The  victors 
of  Sedan  saw  nothing  between  them  and  the  capture  of 
Paris." 

Remote  allusions  and  frequent  quotations  are  also  a 
source  of  obscurity;  as,  "They  partook  of  the  cup  that 
cheers,  but  not  inebriates,"  for,  "They  took  tea  together;" 
"He  failed  in  one  trade  and  tried  another;  but  his  re- 
ceipts were  few  and  far  between,  and  his  last  state  was 
worse  than  his  first"  for,  "He  failed  in  one  trade,  tried 
another,  and  failed  again." 

Following  is  a- salient  example  of  allusive  pedantry: 
"  There  are  torches  of  Miltiades  in  every  battle-field  of 
academic  or  national  struggles,  of  which  the  sight  or 
remembrance  ought  forever  to  prevent  the  young  Themis- 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  137 

tocles  from  sleeping."  The  meaning  of  this  sentence  is 
probably:  "  In  every  academic  or  national  competition 
there  are  examples  of  well-earned  success  which  ought 
to  inspire  us  with  a  desire  to  emulate  them." 

Simple  things  and  incidents  should  always  be  described 
in  simple  language.  Following  is  an  example,  to  the 
contrary,  likely  to  puzzle  the  reader  : 

"  I  found,  on  examination,  a  contusion  of  the  integu- 
ments under  the  orbit,  with  extravasation  of  blood  and 
ecchymosis  of  the  surrounding  cellular  tissue,  which  was 
in  a  tumefied  state,  with  abrasion  of  the  cuticle."  Trans- 
lated into  plain  English,  the  meaning  of  this  sentence  is 
that  the  doctor  found  a  patient  with  a  black  eye. 

The  same  sort  of  stilted  language  is  often  found  in 
metaphysical  treatises  and  art  criticisms.  Lord  Macaulay 
has  directed  attention  to  the  strong  Saxon  of  Dr.  John- 
son's unpremeditated  remarks,  such,  for  example,  as 
"The  rehearsal  had  not  wit  enough  to  keep  it  sweet ;" 
"  that  is,"  he  continued,  by  way  of  correcting,  but  really 
spoiling  the  sentence,  "  it  has  not  vitality  enough  to  pre- 
serve it  from  putrefaction."  "  When  we  were  taken 
up-stairs,"  he  says  in  a  letter  from  the  Hebrides,  ua 
dirty  fellow  bounced  out  of  the  bed  on  which  one  of  us 
was  to  lie."  The  incident  reappeared  at  a  later  date  in 
the  Journal  in  the  following  pompous  and  inverted  form: 
"  Out  of  one  of  the  couches  on  which  we  were  to  repose, 
there  started  up,  at  our  entrance,  a  man,  black  as  a 
cyclops  from  the  forge." 

Simple  words  come  most  naturally  to  our  minds,  and 
attempts  to  display  learning  often  result  in  an  exposure 
of  ignorance.  The  almost  exclusive  use  of  Saxon  does 
not,  like  the  extreme  use  of  Latin  words,  savor  of  ab- 
surdity; but  it,  too,  is  a  fault  of  style.  Plain  words  are 


138  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

the  best  for  plain  things,  but  technical  subjects  may  ap- 
propriately be  discussed  in  technical  terms.  To  talk  of 
a  daisy  or  a  wall-flower  by  its  botanical  name  in  ordinary 
conversation,  would  be  to  make  our  meaning  obscure. 
We  should  call  a  spade  a  spade;  a  thief  a  thief,  not  a 
kleptomaniac ;  but  geography  is  better  than  earth-descrip- 
tion. Magnitude  is  different  from  greatness;  fluidity  is  not 
wateriness;  and  to  drop  the  distinction  would  be,  by  an 
affectation  of  simplicity,  a  fall  into  obscurity. 

With  some  exceptions,  the  briefer  we  make  the  expres- 
sion of  a  thought,  the  clearer  will  it  be.  A  superfluous 
word  or  phrase  is,  as  a  rule,  productive  of  harm,  and 
should  not  be  used  in  composition. 

TAUTOLOGY.  Clearness  is  often  violated  by  tau- 
tology, or  a  needless  repetition  of  words  or  ideas.  Fol- 
lowing are  illustrations  of  tautological  expressions:  "On 
comparing  these  works  together,  I  found  there  was  no 
comparison  between  them."  It  would  be  far  better  to  say: 
"  I  found  there  was  no  comparison  between  these  works." 
"  Less  capacity  is  required  for  this  business,  but  more 
time  is  necessary"  should  be :  "  Less  capacity,  but  more 
time,  is  required  for  this  business." 

The  superfluous  particles,  especially  the  prepositions 
and  conjunctions  italicized  in  the  following  examples,  if 
omitted  will  improve  the  sense:  "  He  would  have  recoiled 
aghast  from  before  the  idea;"  " Doivn  until  this  time;'* 
"They  may  be  divided  up  into  their  component  parts;" 
"  Persons  who  settle  upon  what  shall  be  the  topics  of  their 
speeches;"  "As  they  must  pass  their  lives  together,  I  have 
therefore  thought;"  "Of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good 
and  evil,  thou  shalt  not  eat  of  it;"  "  He  restored  the  chief 
butler  to  his  butlership  again;"  "The  law,  and  the  equity, 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC.  139 

and  the  merits  of  the  case  ;"  "  It  was  either  white,  or  blue, 
or  green." 

Adverbs,  adjectives,  or  qualifying  phrases  the  mean- 
ings of  which  are  already  involved  in  the  sentence  are 
tautological  and  should  be  omitted.  Following  are 
examples:  "The  most  entire  satisfaction;"  "The  whole 
sum  total;"  "The  entire  monopoly  of  the  ^vhole  trade;" 
''One  unanimous  cry;"  "These  departments  mutually 
reflect  light  on  each  other ; "  "  They  returned  back  again  to* 
the  city;"  "The  universal  opinion  of  all  men;"  "Many 
offered  voluntarily  to  be  among  the  number;"  "The 
proper  ornaments  of  style  arise  from  sentiment,  and  flow 
in  the  same  stream  with  the  current  of  thought;"  "The 
second  mode  is  by  studying  the  literature  of  a  language 
in  order  of  time,  or  chronologically,  beginning  with  the  very 
oldest  written  books,  and  coming  down  to  the  latest  and 
neivest." 

The  use  of  two  or  more  nouns  meaning  nearly  the 
same  thing ;  as,  currency  and  circulation,  investigation  and 
inquiry,  institutions  and  government,  welfare  and  prosper- 
ity, intents  and  purposes,  bounds  and  limits,  pleasure  and 
enjoyment,  courage  and  fortitude,  should  generally  be 
avoided.  Such  collocations  are  allowable  for  the  purpose 
of  unfolding  what  is  involved,  or  of  discriminating  between 
two  possible  meanings  of  a  word ;  as  when  we  say : 
"sense  and  construction,"  in  contradistinction  to  "sense 
and  sensibility." 

Some  words  run  in  couples,  hunt  in  pairs,  and  seem 
linked  like  Siamese  twins,  by  established  usage.  "  Means 
and  substance,"  "  head  and  front,"  etc.,  are  examples  of 
this  class,  but  it  is  not  desirable  to  multiply  these  prac- 
tical duplicates,  as  they  are  likely  to  suggest  a.  difference 
where  none  exists,  and  thus  confuse  the  reader.  But  the 


140  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

repetition  of  a  word  is  often  advisable  for  the  sake  of 
clearness,  and  the  repetition  of  an  idea  is  often  conducive 
to  effect  in  oratory;  as,  "All  that  is  little  and  low  and 
mean  among  us." 

PLEONASM  does  not,  like  tautology,  exactly  repeat  the 
sense  of  the  writer;  but  it  adds  to  it  nothing  except 
what  is  really  involved  in  that  which  has  been  said. 
Pleonasm  is  a  more  deceptive  fault  of  clearness  than 
tautology. 

The  following  are  pleonasms :  "  He  went  home  full  of 
a  great  many  serious  reflections ;  "  "I  shall  come  to  see 
you  at  your  house  to-morrow,  if  I  have  any  leisure  on  my 
hands;"  "  Reason  is  the  glory  of  human  nature,  and  is 
one  of  the  chief  eminences  whereby  we  are  raised  above 
our  fellow-creatures,  the  brutes,  /;/  this  lower  world ;  " 
"  This  club  treats  all  other  clubs  with  an  eye  ^/"contempt ; "' 
"  He  managed  the  affairs  of  the  country  with  prudent 
policy  and  provident  wisdom :"  "In  the  Attic  common- 
wealth, it  was  the  privilege  and  birth-right  of  every  citizen 
and  poet  to  rail  aloud  and  in  public" 

The  words  italicized  in  the  foregoing  sentences  should 
be  omitted.  The  following  and  similar  expressions  are 
justifiable  at  times  for  rhetorical  emphasis;  as,  "The 
heavens  above,  the  earth  beneatJi,  and  the  waters  under 
tJie  earth;  "  "  We  have  seen  with  our  eyes,  and  heard  with 
our  ears'' 

VERBOSITY  is  also  contrary  to  clearness;  as,  "On 
receiving  this  information  he  arose,  went  out,  saddled  his 
horse,  and  went  to  town."  The  details  here  do  not  repeat 
one  another,  but  are  insignificant  It  would  be  better 
to  reconstruct  the  sentence  so  as  to  read  thus:  "On 
receiving  this  information  he  rode  to  town."  Extended 
instances  of  verbosity  usually  illustrate  other  errors;  but 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC.  14! 

the  uncouthness  of  the  following  is  due,  principally, 
to  the  trivial  details  it  introduces:  "Besides  which,  I 
remember  well  seeing  a  magnificent  drawing,  of  the 
largest  size,  called  '  Italy,'  belonging  to  Mr.  Jones,  and 
another  grand  one  of  the  '  Falls  of  the  Clyde,'  with 
others,  of  which  Mr.  Ruskin  has  not  a  word  to  say  in  his 
bulky  catalogue  of  150  pages,  which,  notwithstanding 
that  half  of  it  is  spent  upon  his  own  drawings,  is  really 
very  interesting  reading  at  any  other  time,  and  at  any 
other  place." 

Very  long  sentences,  even  when  not  tautological,  are 
often  difficult  to  comprehend.  The  awkwardness  of  the 
following  sentences  is  owing  chiefly  to  a  redundancy  of 
adjectives,  the  intrusion  of  sentiment,  the  accumulation 
of  particles,  etc.  "  Finally,  Mill,  the  youngest  of  the 
three — he  was  but  twenty-nine  when  he  wrote  the  pas- 
sage which  I  have  quoted — had  for  several  years  been 
writing  in  the  Westminster  and  other  Reviews  articles 
from  which  it  was  to  be  inferred  that  when  his  cour- 
ageous and  truth-loving  father,  and  that  father's  friend, 
Bentham,  should  be  gone  from  the  earth,  they  would  leave 
behind  them,  in  this  heir  of  their  hopes,  one  fit  to  be  an 
expositor  of  their  ideas  through  another  generation,  but 
who  was  likely  rather  to  look  right  and  left  in  that  gen- 
eration for  himself,  and  to  honor  his  descent,  not  by  mere 
adhesion  to  what  he  had  inherited,  but  by  an  open-mind, 
edness  that  should  even  solicit  contrary  impressions,  and 
push  on  passionately  at  every  break  of  day,  in  the  quest 
of  richer  truth." 

The  sentence  may  be  improved  by  thus  rewriting  it: 
"  Mill,  the  youngest  of  the  group,  though  but  twenty-nine 
when  he  wrote  the  passage  quoted  above,  had  for  several 
years  been  known  as  a  leading  writer  in  the  Westminster 


142  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

and  other  Reviews.  From  the  tone  and  quality  of  his 
articles  it  might  already  have  been  predicted  that  the 
ideas  of  his  father,  and  of  Bentham,  his  father's  friend, 
were  likely  to  be  expounded  to  the  next  generation  in  a 
manner  worthy  of  the  bold  thinkers  who  had  originated 
them.  His  readers  felt  that  John  Stuart  Mill  was  sure  to 
honor  his  descent  by  no  blind  adhesion  to  inherited  belief, 
but  by  a  keen  regard  to  the  circumstances  of  his  time,  a 
mind  ever  open  to  receive  various  impressions,  and  a  zeal 
ever  on  the  alert  for  the  pursuit  of  truth."  The  original 
sentence  is  thus  divided  into  three  sentences. 

Long  sentences  have  their  proper  place  as  elements  of 
variety  in  an  extended  composition;  but  they  require 
skillful  treatment,  and  should  be  avoided  by  inexperi- 
enced writers. 

Circumlocutory  expressions  like  the  following  are  to 
be  avoided:  "Having  bestowed  great  pains  in  investi- 
gating the  subject,  I  am  firmly  persuaded  that,"  "  I  am 
convinced  it  is  true  that,"  "  As  far  as  I  know,"  etc. 

The  frequent  use  of  /;///,  though,  however,  still,  neverthe- 
less, if  I  may  say  so,  so  to  speak,  etc.,  especially  when  one 
follows  another,  is  likely  to  muddle  the  sentence  and  puz- 
zle the  reader. 

THE  DOUBLE  NEGATIVE,  which  is  commonly  opposed 
to  clearness,  is  properly  used  when  a  direct  affirmative 
would  overstate  the  truth;  as,  "He  is  not  unjust"  "It 
was  not  a  bad\\\\."  The  double  negative  is  also  employed 
effectively  by  eminent  writers  to  make  a  strong  assertion 
with  some  reserve.  Lord  Macaulay  says  that  Milton  in 
his  blindness  "meditated  a  song  so  sublime  and  holy 
that  it  would  not  have  misbecome  the  lips  of  those  ethe- 
real virtues,"  etc.  But  in  the  following  instances  the 
double  negative  is  badly  employed :  "  Henceforth  all 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  143 

orders  not  emanating  from  the  ministry  must  not  be 
obeyed;"  "It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  a  high  degree  of 
beauty  does  not  lie  in  simple  forms ; "  "  The  following 
expressions  seem  not  to  have  the  merit  of  not  being  syn- 
onymous." 

EXCESSIVE  BREVITY  may  also  lead  to  a  violation  of 
clearness.  It  is  more  commonly  the  error  of  great 
authors,  who  are  likely  to  forget  that  the  reader  cannot 
supply  the  latent  trains  of  thought  which  link  their  sen- 
tences. The  obscurity  of  excessive  brevity  is  generally 
due  to  an  abuse  of  ellipses ;  as,  "  He  is  inspired  with 
a  true  sense  of  that  function,"  instead  of  "  He  is  inspired 
with  a  true  sense  of  tJie  importance  of  that  function." 
"Arbitrary  power  I  look  upon  as  a  greater  evil  than 
anarchy  itself,  as  much  as  a  savage  is  a  happier  state  of 
life  than  a  galley-slave."  We  cannot  properly  call  a 
savage  or  a  galley-slave  a  state  of  life,  though  we  may 
compare  their  conditions.  The  obscurity  of  the  sentence 
is  removed  by  supplying  the  omitted  words  so  as  to  make 
it  read  thus:  "Arbitrary  power  I  look  upon  as  a  greater 
evil  than  anarchy  itself,  as  much  as  the  state  of  a  savage 
is  happier  than  that  of  a  galley-slave." 

Connecting  particles  or  pronouns,  on  the  contrary,  may 
often  be  omitted  with  advantage  to  clearness ;  as,  "  Man 
proposes ;  God  disposes  ; "  "I  told  you  I  would  go  my- 
self;" "Had  I  known  the  danger,  I  would  not  have 
gone  ; "  "  Had  I  but  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal  I 
served  my  king."  Here,  "with  which"  is  understood 
after  zeal,  and  there  is  not  any  ambiguity. 

Condensation  is  commonly  the  remedy  for  obscurity; 
thus,  "  Pope  professed  to  have  learned  his  poetry  from 
Dryden,  whom,  whenever  an  opportunity  presented,  he 
praised  through  the  whole  period  of  his  existence  with 


144  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

unvaried  liberality;  and  perhaps  his  character  may  re- 
ceive some  illustration  if  a  comparison  be  instituted 
between  him  and  the  man  whose  pupil  he  was;"  a  sen- 
tence which  may  be  thus  condensed  and  improved :  "  Pope 
professed  himself  the  pupil  of  Dryden,  whom  he  lost  no 
opportunity  of  praising;  and  his  character  is  illustrated 
by  comparison  with  his  master." 

Obscurity  may  be  remedied,  sometimes,  by  paraphrase. 
The  same  word  cannot  be  used,  Consistently  with  the 
principles  of  clearness,  in  different  senses  in  the  same 
sentence ;  as,  "  He  presents  more  and  more  convincing 
arguments  than  his  adversary."  Here  the  word  more 
first  occurs  as  an  adjective,  then  as  an  adverb,  to  the 
great  confusion  of  the  reader.  The  sentence  should  read : 
44  He  presents  more  numerous  and  more  convincing  argu- 
ments than  his  adversary."  The  pronouns,  particularly 
the  personals  and  relatives,  are  often  misused  in  this  way. 
The  same  pronoun,  as  a  rule,  should  not  be  made  to 
refer  to  different  objects  in  the  same  sentence. 

Obscurity  may  arise  from  inversions  and  omissions. 
Inversions  are  most  common  in  poetry;  as, 

"  When  Adam,  first  of  men, 

To  first  of  women,  Eve,  thus  moving  speech, 
Turned  him  all  tar   to  hear  new  utterance  flow." 

The  omission,  or  rather  non-repetition  of  the  subject, 
often  strains  the  attention  and  causes  a  degree  of  ob- 
scurity. Adverbs  when  misplaced,  or  even  inverted  for 
emphasis,  may  easily  cause  obscurity;  as,  "  He  left  the 
room  very  slowly  repeating  his  determination  not  to 
obey."  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  adverb  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  word  which  it  qualifies,  and  in 
such  a  position,  either  before  or  after,  that  it  cannot  be 
taken  to  qualify  any  other  word. 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHP:TORIC.  145 

The  use  of  participles  often  causes  ambiguity;  as,  "I 
saw  an  old  school-fellow  yesterday  when  I  was  in  New 
York  walking  down  Broadway,  valise  in  hand." 

Infinitives,  when  carelessly  used,  are  ambiguous  and 
detrimental  to  clearness ;  as,  "  Do  yo  intend  to  send  your 
son  to  help  me  to  work  or  to  play?  " 

Does  this  mean :  "  Do  you  intend  to  send  your  son,  or 
to  help  me,  or  to  work,  or  to  play?"  or,  "  Do  you  intend 
to  send  your  son  that  he  may  help  me,  or  that  he  may 
work,  or  that  he  may  play?"  or,  "  Do  you  intend  to  send 
your  son  to  help  me,  that  I  may  work,  or  that  I  may 
play?" 


STRENGTH. 

Strength,  in  its  technical  sense,  has  already  been  de- 
fined. We  may  add  that  the  essence  of  strength  lies  in 
originality  and  vividness,  and  the  term  comprehends 
substantially  all  of  the  elements  of  Purity,  Propriety, 
Precision,  and  Perspicuity.  The  rejection  of  superfluous 
words,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  one  of  the  elements 
of  precision,  is  essential  to  strength.  Whatever  adds 
nothing  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  detracts  from 
its  strength,  and  whether  it  be  simply  a  word,  a  phrase, 
or  a  clause,  should  be  rejected. 

The  italicized  words  in  the  following  examples  convey 
no  additional  meaning, and  should  accordingly  be  omitted: 
"  Being  satisfied  with  what  he  has  achieved,  he  attempts 
nothing  further;  "  "  If  I  had  not  been  absent,  if  I  had  been 
here,  it  would  not  have  happened ; "  "  The  very  first 
discovery  of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy,  and 
spreads  delight  through  all  its  faculties" 


146  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

RELATIVES  AND  CONDUCTIONS.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  use  the  relative  for  the  conjunction,  or  the  con- 
junction for  the  relative;  of  which  latter  fault  Swift  is 
guilty  in  the  following  sentence:  "There  is  no  talent  so 
useful  toward  rising  in  the  world,  or  which  puts  men 
more  out  of  the  reach  of  fortune,  than  that  quality  gen- 
erally possessed  by  the  dullest  sort  of  people,  and  is,  in 
common  language,  called  discretion."  Here  the  word  and 
should  give  place  to  which.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that 
the  words  which  is  are  understood  after  talent,  near  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  that  the  conjunction  or  is 
accordingly  introduced  to  connect  the  first  clause  with 
that  which  follows. 

Parts  of  sentences  should  be  connected  by  either  a 
conjunction  or  a  relative  pronoun,  but  not  by  both.  "  He 
was  a  man  of  fine  abilities,  and  who  lost  no  opportunity 
of  improving  them  by  study."  Here  who  should  be 
rejected,  since  the  connection  is  made  by  and.  Between 
two  relative  clauses,  however,  <(  conjunction  is  generally 
employed ;  as,  "  Cicero,  whom  the  profligate  feared,  but 
who  was  honored  by  the  upright,"  etc. 

THE  Too  FREQUENT  USE  OF  AND  should  be  avoided. 
Not  only  when  employed  to  introduce  a  sentence,  but 
also  when  often  repeated  during  its  progress,  this  con- 
junction greatly  weakens  style.  It  is  used  no  less  than 
eight  times  in  the  following  sentence  from  Sir  William 
Temple:  "The  Academy  set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
to  amuse  the  wits  of  that  age  and  country,  and  divert 
them  from  raking  into  his  politics  and  ministry,  brought 
this  into  vogue;  and  the  French  wits  have,  for  this  last 
age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement  of  their  style 
and  language;  and,  indeed,  with  such  success  that  it  can 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  147 

hardly  be  equaled,  and  runs  equally  through  their  verse 
and  their  prose." 

The  conjunction  is  often  omitted,  and  with  fine  effect, 
when  the  object  is  to  present  a  quick  succession  of 
spirited  images.  But,  on  the  contrary,  \vhen  making  an 
enumeration  in  which  it  is  important  that  the  transition 
from  one  object  to  another  should  not  be  too  rapid,  but 
that  each  should  appear  distinct  from  the  rest,  the  con- 
junction may  be  repeated  with  peculiar  advantage;  as, 
"  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels, 
nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor 
things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other 
creature  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love 
of  God." 

THE  SPLITTING  OF  PARTICLES,  that  is,  the  separa- 
tion of  a  preposition  from  the  noun  which  it  governs, 
should  always  be  avoided.  The  error  is  illustrated  in 
the  following  sentence :  "  Though  virtue  borrows  no 
assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by  the 
advantages  of  fortune."  It  should  read  thus :  "  Though 
virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from  the  advantages  of 
fortune,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by  them." 

THE  EXPLETIVE  THERE,  as  used  in  the.  following 
sentence,  should  be  avoided :  "  There  is  nothing  which 
disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty  pomp  of  language." 
A  briefer  and  stronger  expression  of  the  sentiment  would 
be :  "  Nothing  disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty  pomp 
of  language."  The  use  of  this  expletive  is  permissible 
only  when  it  is  used  to  introduce  an  important  propo- 
sition. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  EMPHATIC  WORDS.  The  proper 
arrangement  of  emphatic  words  in  a  sentence  is  essential 
to  strength.  They  may  sometimes  be  placed  at  the 


148  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

beginning  of  a  sentence;  as,  "  The  pleasures  of  the  imagin- 
ation, taken  in  their  full  extent,  are  not  so  gross  as 
those  of  sense,  nor  so  refined  as  those  of  the  understand- 
ing." At  other  times,  it  is  advisable  to  suspend  the  sense 
for  a  time,  and  bring  the  emphatic  words  at  the  close  of 
the  sentence ;  as,  "  On  whatever  side  we  contemplate 
Homer,  what  principally  strikes  us  is  his  ivonderfiil  in- 
vention. 

PRECEDENCE  OF  CLAUSES.  Strength  requires  that 
the  shorter  members  of  a  sentence  should  have  pre- 
cedence of  the  longer,  and  that  the  weaker  should  be 
placed  before  the  stronger.  Both  of  these  principles  are 
violated  in  the  following  example :  "  In  this  state  of  mind, 
every  employment  of  life  becomes  an  oppressive  burden, 
and  every  object  appears  gloomy."  It  is  far  more  forcible 
to  say:  "In  this  state  of  mind,  every  object  appears 
gloomy,  and  every  employment  of  life  becomes  an  op- 
pressive burden.' 

WEAK  ENDINGS.  We  should  avoid  ending  a  sentence 
with  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  small  unaccented 
word  ;  as,  "  He  is  one  whom  good  men  are  glad  to  be  ac- 
quainted with;"  "  He  is  one  with  whom  good  men  are 
glad  to  be  acquainted."  The  superiority  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  second  sentence  is  obvious. 

INTENSIVE  EXPRESSIONS.  Another  violation  of 
strength  lies  in  the  injudicious  use  of  very,  and  other 
intensive  or  superlative  expressions.  All  exaggerated 
language,  as  in  the  frequent  use  of  such  adjectives  as  stu- 
pendous, boundless,  tremendous,  prodigious,  rapturous,  infi- 
nite, incalculable,  awful,  majestic,  etc.,  should  be  avoided. 

BATHOS.  When  the  thought  descends  instead  of  as- 
cending, the  strength  is  impaired.  This  descent  is  some- 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  149 

times  confusing,  and  is  called  bathos.  Example:  "She 
was  a  true  wife,  a  loving  mother,  and  a  good  cook." 

CLIMAX.  The  phrases  and  clauses  of  a  sentence  should, 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  strength,  be  arranged  in  an 
ascending  scale,  called  climax.  A  figure  of  arrangement 
depending  for  its  force  on  the  fact  that  the  vividness 
with  which  the  mind  realizes  a  succession  of  images  has 
much  to  do  with  the  order  in  which  they  are  presented. 

PLAIN  LANGUAGE.  We  should  always  write  naturally 
if  we  wish  to  write  strongly.  Every  form  of  affectation 
is  an  offense  against  perspicuity  and  propriety  as  well  as 
strength.  The  plainest  language  is  not  always  the  most 
forcible;  it  cannot  be  too  natural,  but  it  may  be  too 
familiar.  A  great  orator,  after  a  great  war,  produced  a 
profound  impression  by  saying  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons :  "  The  Angel  of  Death  has  been  abroad  through 
the  land ;  we  may  almost  hear  the  beating  of  his  wings." 
"  If,"  said  a  critic  after  the  debate,  "  if  you  had  said  flap- 
ping, we  would  have  laughed." 

We  should  not  use  unnecessary  adjectives.  It  is  better 
to  say  murder  than  a  planned  Jiomicide.  The  preference 
should  be  given  to  suggestive  adjectives,  leaving  as  much 
as  we  may,  with  safety,  to  the  imagination  of  the 
reader. 

Indirect  or  prefaced  modes  of  expression  should  be 
shuned,  except  where  they  are  emphatic ;  as,  "  It  was  I 
who  did  it; "  "  There  appeared  to  them  a  strange  vision." 

An  accumulation  of  little  words  should  be  avoided, 
since  it  is  an  impediment  to  strength;  as,  "Now,  as  that 
we  may  love  God,  it  is  necessary  to  know  Him  ;  so  that  we 
may  know  God,  it  is  necessary  to  study  His  works."  It 
would  be  better  to  say :  "  As  to  love  God  we  must  know 
Him,  to  know  Him  we  must  study  His  works." 


ISO  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 


HARMONY. 

Harmony,  while  comparatively  of  less  importance  than 
Purity,  Propriety,  Precision,  Perspicuity,  or  Strength,  is 
still  an  essential  element  of  style.  Sound,  although 
secondary  to  sense,  should  not  be  disregarded.  Harmony 
consists  of  the  use  of  pleasing  words,  their  euphonious 
arrangement  in  sentences,  and  the  adaptation  of  sound 
to  sense.  Words  belonging  to  the  following  classes  are 
detrimental  to  harmony,  and  should  be  avoided : 

1.  Derivatives  from  long  compound  words;  as,  bare- 
facedness,  wrongheadedness,  unsuccessfulness. 

2.  Words  containing  a  succession  of  consonant  sounds; 
as,  fonn'dst,  strik'st,  flinched. 

3.  Words  having  a  succession  of  unaccented  syllables ; 
as,  meteorological,  derogatorily,  mercenariness. 

4.  Words  in  which  a  short  or  unaccented  syllable  is 
repeated,  or  followed  by  another  closely  resembling  it, 
as,  holily,  farriering. 

It  must  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  such  words  are 
to  be  rejected  in  all  cases,  but  only  when  other  words 
may  be  used  which  are  equally  significant  and  more 
euphonious.  Harsh  terms  are  sometimes  more  expres- 
sive and  better  adapted  to  the  subject.  The  use  of  the 
same  word  more  than  once  in  the  course  of  a  sentence,  or 
the  use  of  similar  combinations  of  letters  in  contiguous 
words,  is  prejudicial  to  harmony.  Sentences  containing 
a  succession  of  words  of  the  same  number  of  syllables, 
as,  "  No  kind  of  joy  can  long  please  us,"  are  also  defective 
in  harmony.  "  No  species  of  joy  can  long  delight  us,"  is 
a  more  harmonious  form  of  expression.  But  however 
well  chosen  or  euphonious  the  words  may  be  in  them- 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  !$! 

selves,  unless  skillfully  arranged,  the  music  of  the  sentence 
will  be  lost. 

An  alternation  of  soft  and  harsh  sounds  in  a  sentence, 
the  cadence  of  periods,  etc.,  are  conducive  to  harmony. 
Following  is  an  example  from  Baker,  in  which  every 
vowel  regularly  alternates  with  a  consonant,  and  nearly 
every  consonant  is  a  liquid: 

"  Lay  him  low,  lay  him  low, 
In  the  clover,  or  the  snow  ; 
What  cares  he  ?  he  cannot  know  : 
Lay  him  low." 

The  multiplication  of  liquid  sounds  is  also  noticeable 
in  the  following  lines  from  Foe : 

"And  neither  the  angels  in  heaven  above, 
Nor  the  demons  down  under  the  sea, 
Can  ever  dissever  my  soul  from  the  soul 
Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee." 

The  annexed  extract  from  Washington  Irving  is  an 
excellent  illustration  of  the  cadence  at  the  close  of  a  long 
yet  clear  and  musical  sentence  in  prose:  "As  the  vine 
which  has  long  twined  its  graceful  foliage  about  the  oak, 
and  been  lifted  by  it  into  sunshine,  will,  when  the  hardy 
plant  is  rifted  by  the  thunderbolt,  cling  round  it  with  its 
caressing  tendrils,  and  bind  up  its  shattered  boughs;  so 
is  it  beautifully  ordered  by  Providence,  that  woman,  who 
is  the  mere  dependent  and  ornament  of  man  in  his  hap- 
pier hours,  should  be  his  stay  and  solace  when  smitten 
with  sudden  calamity;  winding  herself  into  the  rugged 
recesses  of  his  nature,  tenderly  supporting  the  drooping 
head,  and  binding  up  the  broken  heart." 

The  labor  of  Sisyphus  is  imitated  in  the  following 
lines  from  Pope,  which  clearly  illustrate  the  adaptation 
of  the  sound  to  the  sense: 

"  With  many  a  weary  step,  and  many  a  groan, 
Up  the  high  hill  he  heaves  a  huge  round  stone." 


152  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

UNITY. 

Unity,  the  primary  requirement  of  which  is  that  a 
sentence  be  restricted  to  one  leading  proposition,  is  vio- 
lated in  such  sentences  as  the  following:  "My  friends 
turned  back  after  we  reached  the  vessel,  on  board  of  which 
I  was  received  with  kindness  by  the  passengers,  who  vied 
with  one  another  in  showing  me  attention." 

Here  there  are  no  less  than  four  subjects,  namely: 
friends,  we,  /,  who  [that  is  passengers].  The  unity  of  the 
sentence  may  be  attained  by  thus  reconstructing  it;  "My 
friends  having  turned  back  after  we  reached  the  vessel, 
the  passengers  received  me  on  board  with  kindness,  and 
vied  with  one  another  in  showing,  me  attention." 

We  should  not  crowd  into  a  sentence  things  having  no 
connection;  as,  "Their  march  was  through  an  unculti- 
vated country,  whose  savage  inhabitants  fared  hardly, 
having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose 
flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory,  by  reason  of  their  continual 
feeding  upon  sea-fish."  The  scene  is  here  changed 
repeatedly,  and  forms  a  distasteful  and  confusing  medley. 

LONG  PARENTHESES  are  antagonistic  to  unity.  Pas- 
sages in  which  they  occur  should  be  divided  into 
shorter  sentences;  as,  "The  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria, 
in  Austria  (which  were  discovered  in  1797,  by  a  peasant, 
who,  catching  some  water  from  a  spring,  found  the  tub 
so  heavy  that  he  could  not  move  it,  and  the  bottom 
covered  with  a  shining  substance  which  turned  out  to  be 
mercury),  yield  every  year  over  three  hundred  thousand 
pounds  of  that  valuable  metal." 

Following  is  the  correct  construction :  "  The  quick- 
silver mines  of  Idria,  in  Austria,  were  discovered  by  a 
peasant  in  1797.  Catching  some  water  from  a  spring, 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC  153 

he  found  the  tub  so  heavy  that  he  could  not  move  it, 
and  the  bottom  covered  with  a  shining  substance  which 
proved  to  be  mercury.  Of  this  valuable  metal,  the  mines 
mentioned  yield  every  year  over  three  hundred  thousand 
pounds." 

THE  LOGIC  OF  STYLE. 

Next  to  the  choice  of  words  nothing  is  of  more  im- 
portance than  their  proper  arrangement.  "  Force  in 
language,"  says  that  advanced  thinker,  Herbert  Spencer, 
"  is  mainly  dependent  upon  economy  of  the  mental 
energies  and  sensibilities.  The  more  time  and  attention 
it  takes  to  receive  and  understand  a  sentence,  the  less 
time  and  attention  can  be  given  by  the  reader  to  the 
contained  idea,  and  the  less  vividly  will  that  idea  be 
conceived." 

After  calling  attention  to  the  greater  forcibleness  of 
Saxon  over  Romanic  words,  and  to  the  superiority  of 
specific  expressions,  by  the  use  of  which  there  is  a  saving 
of  the  mental  effort  required  to  translate  words  into 
thoughts,  he  adds : 

<l  In  every  sentence  there  is  some  one  order  of  words 
more  effective  than  any  other,  and  this  order  is  the  one 
which  presents  the  elements  of  the  proposition  in  the 
succession  in  which  they  may  be  most  readily  put 
together.  The  words  and  expressions  most  nearly  re- 
lated in  thought  should  be  placed  closest  together.  The 
theoretically  best  arrangement  is  that  the  simile  come 
before  the  qualified  image,  the  adjectives  before  the  sub- 
stantives, the  predicate  and  copula  before  the  subject, 
and  their  respective  complements  before  them.  But  only 
in  very  rare  cases,  and  then  only  to  produce  a  climax, 
should  all  these  conditions  of  effective  expression  be  ful- 


154  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

filled.  To  select  from  the  sentiment,  scene,  or  event 
described,  those  typical  elements  which  carry  many 
others  along  with  them — and  so,  by  saying  a  few  things, 
but  suggesting  many,  to  abridge  the  description — is  the 
secret  of  producing  a  vivid  impression." 

Thus  are  tersely  and  strongly  presented  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  style.  Concrete  terms  produce 
more  vivid  impressions  than  abstract  terms,  and  should, 
when  possible,  be  used.  Says  Dr.  Campbell:  "The  more 
general  the  terms  are,  the  picture  is  the  fainter;  the 
more  special  they  are,  the  brighter."  Hence  we  should 
avoid  such  a  sentence  as,  "  In  proportion  as  the  manners, 
customs  and  amusements  of  a  nation  are  cruel  and  bar- 
barous, the  regulations  of  their  penal  code  will  be  severe,'* 
and  write  instead :  "  In  proportion  as  men  delight  in 
battles,  bull-fights,  and  combats  of  gladiators,  will  they 
punish  by  hanging,  burning,  and  the  rack." 

What  has  been  said  respecting  the  succession  of  the 
adjective  and  substantive  is  also  applicable,  by  a  change 
of  terms,  to  the  adverb  and  the  verb.  In  the  arrange- 
ment of  predicate  and  subject,  we  are  at  once  shown  that, 
as  the  predicate  determines  the  aspect  under  which  the 
subject  is  to  be  conceived,  it  should  be  placed  first;  and 
the  striking  effect  produced  by  so  placing  it  becomes 
comprehensible.  Take,  for  example,  the  often-quoted 
contrast  between  "Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  and 
"Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great."  "When  the  first 
arrangement  is  used,"  says  Spencer,'  "  the  utterance  of 
the  word  great  arouses  those  vague  associations  of  an 
impressive  nature  with  which  it  has  been  habitually  con- 
nected; the  imagination  is  prepared  to  clothe  with  high 
attributes  whatever  follows ;  and  when  the  words,  '  Diana 
of  the  Ephesians,'  are  heard,  all  the  appropriate  imagery 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 


155 


which  can,  on  the  instant,  be  summoned,  is  used  in  the 
formation  of  the  picture:  the  mind  being  thus  led  directly, 
and  without  error,  to  the  intended  expression.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  the  reverse  order  is  followed,  the  idea, 
'  Diana  of  the  Ephesians/  is  conceived  with  no  special 
reference  to  greatness;  and  when  the  words,  is  great,  are 
added,  the  conception  has  to  be  remodeled:  whence 
arises  a  loss  of  mental  energy,  and  a  corresponding 
diminution  of  effect." 

The  principle  cited  above  equally  applies  when  the 
predicate  is  a  verb  or  a  participle. 

When  a  circumstance  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
period,  or  near  the  beginning,  the  transition  from  it  to  the 
principal  subject  is  agreeable;  as,  "Whatever  it  may  be 
in  theory,  it  is  clear  that  in  practice  the  French  idea  of 
liberty  is,  the  right  of  every  man  to  be  master  of  the 
rest."  WTere  the  first  two  clauses,  in  this  sentence,  to 
the  word  practice  inclusive,  which  qualify  the  subject,  to 
be  placed  at  the  end  instead  of  the  beginning,  much  of 
the  force  would  be  lost  ;  as,  "  The  French  idea  of  liberty 
is  the  right  of  every  man  to  be  master  of  the  rest;  in 
practice  at  least,  if  not  in  theory." 

So  it  is  with  respect  to  the  conditions  under  which  any 
fact  is  predicated.  The  effect  of  placing  them  last  is 
illustrated  in  the  following  example:  "How  immense 
would  be  the  stimulus  to  progress,  were  the  honor  now 
given  to  wealth  and  title,  given  exclusively  to  .high 
achievements  and  intrinsic  worth."  The  construction 
may  be  thus  visibly  improved:  "Were  the  honor  now 
given  to  wealth  and  title,  given  exclusively  to  high 
achievements  and  intrinsic  worth,  how  immense  would 
be  the  stimulus  to  progress." 

The  effect  of  giving  priority  to  the  complement  of  the 


TT  w  rwMT*  e*  T  in  «*1 


156  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

predicate,  as  well  as  the  predicate  itself,  is  thus  illustrated 
in  the  opening  of  "  Hyperion  " : 

"Deep  in  the  shady  sadness  of  a  vale 
far  sunken,  from  the  healthy  breath  of  mornt 
Far  from  the  fiery  noon  and  eve's  one  star, 
Sat  gray-haired  Saturn,  quiet  as  a  stone." 

Here  it  may  be  noted,  not  only  that  the  predicate  sat 
precedes  the  subject  Saturn,  and  that  the  three  lines  in 
italics,  constituting  the  complement  of  the  predicate, 
come  before  it ;  but  that  in  the  structure  of  that  comple- 
ment also,  the  same  order  is  followed :  each  line  being  so 
arranged  that  the  qualifying  words  are  placed  before  the 
words  suggesting  concrete  images. 

Regard  for  economy  of  the  reader's  attention,  which, 
as  we  find,  determines  the  best  order  for  the  subject, 
copula,  predicate,  and  their  complements,  dictates  that 
the  subordinate  proposition  shall  precede  the  principal 
proposition,  when  the  sentence  includes  two.  Contain- 
ing, as  the  subordinate  proposition  does,  some  qualify- 
ing or  explanatory  idea,  its  priority  prevents  miscon- 
ception of  the  principal  proposition,  and  accordingly 
saves  the  mental  effort  needed  to  correct  such  miscon- 
ception. 

The  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  annexed  example: 
"  The  secrecy  once  maintained  in  respect  to  the  parlia- 
mentary debates,  is  still  thought  needful  in  diplomacy; 
and  in  virtue  of  this  secret  diplomacy,  England  may 
any  day  be  unawares  betrayed  by  its  ministers  into 
a  war  costing  a  hundred  thousand  lives,  and  hundreds  of 
millions  of  treasure:  yet  the  English  pique  themselves 
on  being  a  self-governed  people."  The  t\vo  subordinate 
propositions  ending  with  the  semicolon  and  colon  re- 
spectively, almost  wholly  determine  the  meaning  of  the 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  157 

principal  proposition,  with  which  it  concludes;  and  the 
effect  would  be  lost  were  they  placed  last  instead  of 
first. 

THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ARRANGEMENT  as  illustrated  in 
the  leading  divisions  of  sentences  is  also  applicable  to 
the  minor  divisions.  The  succession,  in  each  case,  should 
be  from  the  less  specific  to  the  more  specific,  and  from 
the  abstract  to  the  concrete. 

The  following  defective  combination  illustrates  the 
principle,  that  the  words  and  expressions  most  nearly 
related  in  thought  should  be  placed  the  closest  together: 
"A  modern  newspaper  statement,  though  probably  true, 
would  be  laughed  at,  if  quoted  in  a  book  as  testi- 
mony ;  but  the  letter  of  a  court  gossip  is  thought  good 
historical  evidence,  if  written  some  centuries  ago.'' 
Properly  arranged  the  sentence  would  read  thus :  "Though 
probably  true,  a  modern  newspaper  statement,  quoted  in 
a  book  as  testimony,  would  be  laughed  at ;  but  the  letter 
of  a  court  gossip,  if  written  some  centuries  ago,  is 
thought  good  historical  evidence." 

There  are  many  cases  in  which  neither  the  direct  nor 
the  indirect  structure  is  better,  but  an  intermediate  struct- 
ure is  preferable  to  both.  Following  are  examples: 
Indirect — "  We  came  to  our  journey's  end,  at  last,  with 
no  small  difficulty,  after  much  fatigue,  through  deep 
roads  and  bad  weather."  Direct — "At  last,  with  no  small 
difficulty,  after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and 
bad  weather,  we  came  to  our  journey's  end." 

The  sentence  first  cited  is  thus  corrected  by  Dr. 
Whately,  the  logician  and  rhetorician:  "At  last,  after 
much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  weather,  we 
came,  with  no  small  difficulty,  to  our  journey's  end." 

"But,"  says  Spencer,  correcting  in  his  turn  Dr.  Whately, 


158  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

"the  more  abstract  elements  of  thought  should  come 
before  the  more  concrete,  and  the  best  arrangement  is 
thus:  'At  last,  with  no  small  difficulty,  and  after  much 
fatigue,  we  came,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  weather, 
to  our  journey's  end.'  " 

The  English  idiom  does  not  commonly  permit  the 
order  which  theory  dictates.  A  few  instances  occur, 
however,  and  one  may  here  be  cited  from  Ossian :  "  As 
autumn's  dark  storms  pour  from  two  echoing  hills,  so 
toward  each  other  approached  the  heroes.  As  two  dark 
streams  from  high  rocks  meet  and  mix,  and  roar  on  the 
plain;  loud,  rough,  and  dark  in  battle  meet  Lochlin  and 
Inisfail.  *  *  *  *  As  the  troubled  noise  of  the  ocean 
when  roll  the  waves  on  high;  as  the  last  peal  of  the 
thunder  of  heaven;  such  is  noise  of  the  battle." 

"  Except  in  the  position  of  the  verb  in  the  first  two 
similes,"  says  Spencer,  "the  theoretically  best  arrange- 
ment is  fully  carried  out  in  each  of  these  sentences. 
The  simile  comes  before  the  qualified  image,  the  adjec- 
tives before  the  substantives,  the  predicate  and  copula 
before  the  subject,  and  their  respective  complements 
before  them.  That  the  passage  is  open  to  the  charge  of 
being  bombastic  proves  nothing;  or  rather,  proves  our 
case.  For  what  is  bombast  but  a  force  of  expression  too 
great  for  the  magnitude  of  the  ideas  embodied?  All 
that  may  rightly  be  inferred  is,  that  only  in  very  rare 
cases,  and  then  only  to  produce  a  climax,  should  all  the 
conditions  of  effective  expression  be  fulfilled." 

BREVITY.  "  It  is  the  cream  of  a  writer's  thoughts  that 
men  want,"  truthfully  remarks  Professor  Mathews,  "  the 
wheat  and  not  the  chaff,  the  kernel  and  not  the  shell, 
the  strong,  pungent  essence  and  not  the  thin,  diluted 
mixture." 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  159 

To  attain  a  strong  style,  too  much  attention  cannot  be 
given  to  its  cardinal  elements ;  namely,  clearness,  purity, 
and  strength.  The  additional  attributes  of  grace,  color, 
and  vividness,  while  desirable  also,  still  are  not  such  an 
absolute  necessity. 

DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION.  The  history  of  literature 
is  replete  with  instances  of  defective  construction,  and 
even  the  acknowledged  masters  of  style  are  not  altogether 
above  criticism.  The  two  following  passages,  said  to  be 
so  happy  as  to  defy  improvement,  occur  in  "  Macaulay's 
Essays : " 

"  Government  is  to  Mr.  Southey  one  of  the  fine  arts. 
He  judges  of  a  theory,  or  public  measure,  of  a  religion,  a 
political  party,  a  peace  or  a  war,  as  men  judge  of  a 
picture  or  a  statue,  by  the  effect  produced  on  his  imag- 
ination. A  chain  of  associations  is  to  him  what  a 
chain  of  reasoning  is  to  other  men ;  and  what  he  calls  his 
opinions  are,  in  fact,  merely  his  tastes." 

"  In  the  rank  of  Lord  Byron,  in  his  Understanding,  in 
his  character,  in  his  very  person,  there  was  *a  strange 
union  of  opposite  extremes.  He  was  born  to  all  that 
men  covet  and  admire.  But  in  every  one  of  those  emi- 
nent advantages  which  he  possessed  over  others,  there 
was  a  mingled  something  of  misery  and  debasement. 
He  was  sprung  from  a  house,  ancient  indeed,  and  noble, 
but  degraded  and  impoverished  by  a  series  of  crimes  and 
follies,  which  had  attained  a  scandalous  publicity.  The 
kinsman  whom  he  succeeded  had  died  poor,  and,  but 
for  merciful  judges,  would  have  died  upon  the  gallows. 
The  young  peer  had  great  intellectual  powers,  yet  there 
was  an  unsound  part  in  his  mind.  He  had  naturally 
a  generous  and  tender  heart ;  but  his  temper  was  way- 
ward and  irritable.  He  had  a  head  which  statuaries 


160  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

loved  to  copy,  and  a  foot,  the  deformity  of  which,  the 
beggars  in  the  streets  mimicked." 

Poe,  critically  reviewing  these  passages,  suggests  that 
they  be  thus  reconstructed : 

"  With  Southey,  governing  is  a  fine  art.  Of  a  theory  or 
a  public  measure — of  a  creed,  a  political  party,  a  peace 
or  a  war — he  judges  by  the  imaginative  effect,  as  only 
such  things  as  pictures  or  statues  are  judged  of  by  other 
men.  What  to  them  a  chain  of  reasoning  is,  to  him  is  a 
chain  of  association ;  and  as  to  his  opinions,  tJiey  are 
nothing  but  his  tastes." 

"In  Lord  Byron's  rank,  understanding,  character — even 
in  his  person — we  find  a  strange  union  of  extremes. 
Whatever  men  covet  and  admire  became  his  by  right  of 
birth,  yet  debasement  and  misery  were  mingled  with  each 
of  his  eminent  advantages.  He  sprang  from  a  house 
ancient,  it  is  true,  and  noble,  but  degraded  and  impover- 
ished by  a  series  of  notorious  crimes.  But  for  mer- 
ciful judges,  the  pauper  kinsman  whom  he  succeeded, 
would  have  been  hanged.  The  young  peer  had  an  in- 
tellect, great,  perhaps,  yet  partially  unsound.  His  heart 
was  generous,  but  his  temper  wayward ;  and  while  stat- 
uaries copied  his  head,  beggars  mimicked  the  deformity 
of  his  foot." 

Poe's  is  undoubtedly  the  preferable  construction,  but 
it  also  may  be  improved,  thus : 

"  With  Southey,  governing  is  a  fine  art.  Of  a  theory, 
or  a  public  measure — of  a  creed,  a  political  party,  a  peace, 
or  a  war — he  judges  by  the  imaginative  effect;  as  only 
such  things  as  pictures  or  statues  are  judged  by  other 
men.  What  to  them  a  chain  of  reasoning  is,  to  him  is 
a  chain  of  association ;  and  his  opinions  are  nothing  but 
his  tastes."  The  word  of  in  the  phrase,  "judged  of  by 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC.  l6l 

other  men,"  is  superfluous,  and  may  be  advantageously 
omitted,  while  the  clause  relative  to  "his  opinions,"  in 
the  closing  sentence,  has  been  shortened  without  any 
sacrifice  to  the  sense  or  sound.  The  only  apparent  im- 
provement which  can  be  made  in  Poe's  construction  of 
the  paragraph  relative  to  Lord  Byron,  is  the  substitution 
of  partly  for  partially  in  the  last  sentence  but  one. 
Partially,  derived  from  partial,  implies  a  bias  or  prejudice, 
while  partly,  from  part,  means  simply  in  part.  Its  use  is, 
accordingly,  a  violation  of  precision.  The  paragraph 
corrected  should  read  thus: 

"In  Lord  Byron's  rank,  understanding,  character — 
even  in  his  person — we  find  a  strange  union  of  extremes. 
Whatever  men  covet  and  admire,  became  his  by  right  of 
birth;  yet  debasement  and  misery  were  mingled  with 
each  of  his  eminent  advantages.  He  sprang  from  a 
house,  ancient,  it  is  true,  and  noble,  but  degraded  and 
impoverished  by  a  series  of  notorious  crimes.  But  for 
merciful  judges,  the  pauper  kinsman,  whom  he  succeeded, 
would  have  been  hanged.  The  young  peer  had  an  in- 
tellect great,  perhaps,  yet  partly  unsound.  His  heart  was 
generous,  but  his  temper  wayward ;  and  while  statuaries 
copied  his  head,  beggars  mimicked  the  deformity  of  his 
foot." 

The  following  is  a  very  awkward  sentence:  "The  Eng- 
lish hate  frogs,  but  the  French  love  frogs,  and  hate  the 
English,  and  cut  off  their  hind  legs  and  consider  them  a 
great  delicacy."  Here  we  have  an  example  of  the 
violation  of  unity,  as  well  as  of  precision.  Four  distinct 
propositions  are  contained  in  the  sentence;  namely: 

1.  The  English  hate  frogs. 

2.  The  French  love  frogs. 

3.  The  French  hate  the  English. 


162  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

4.  The  French  cut  off  the  hind  legs  of  frogs,  and 
consider  them  a  great  delicacy. 

There  is  ample  material  for  several  sentences.  Hate 
and  love,  where  .italicized,  are  not  used  with  exactness, 
and  the  pronoun  their  is  ambiguous,  not  referring  to 
frogs,  as  is  intended,  but  to  the  English.  Besides  there 
is  a  clumsy  repetition  of  English,  hate,  and  frogs.  With- 
out dividing  it,  the  sentence  may  be  reconstructed  so  as 
to  read  thus :  "  The  English,  hated  by  the  French,  dislike 
frogs,  but  the  latter  people  like  them,  and  cut  off  their 
hind  legs,  which  they  consider  a  great  delicacy." 

FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE.  Mixed  metaphors  should 
be  avoided,  since  they  directly  defeat  the  purpose  which 
the  judicious  use  of  figurative  language  is  designed  to 
fulfill,  and  instead  of  making  the  idea  more  vivid,  blur  it 
with  incongruities.  Following  are  examples : 

"  Comets  imparting  change  of  time  and  states, 
Brandish  your  crystal  tresses  in  the  sky, 
And  with  them  scourge  the  bad  revolting  stars." 

Tresses  cannot  be  made  of  glass,  or  used  as  whips, 
hence  the  mixed  metaphor. 

"  You  are  in  the  morning  of  life,  and  that  is  a  season 
for  enjoyment."  We  may  compare  youth  to  the  morn- 
ing, but  that  is  not  a  season. 

Literal  and  figurative  statements  should  never  be 
jumbled  together;  as,  "The  heroic  gunners  had  no  de- 
fense but  bags  of  cotton  joined  to  their  own  unconquerable 
courage!'  Courage  cannot  be  glued  to  bags,  hence  the 
absurdity  of  the  expression. 

The  advantages  sometimes  possessed  by  metaphor 
over  simile  are  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  annexed 
sentences :  Simile — "  As  in  passing  through  the  crystal, 
beams  of  white  light  arc  decomposed  into  the  colors  of 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  163 

the  rainbow,  so  in  traversing  the  soul  of  the  poet,  the 
colorless  rays  of  truth  are  transformed  into  brightly 
tinted  poetry."  Metaphor — "The  white  light  of  truth, 
in  traversing  the  many-sided  transparent  soul  of  the 
poet,  is  refracted  into  iris-hued  poetry." 

Antithesis  is  a  figure  founded  on  contrast,  and  when 
sufficiently  sharp,  becomes  an  epigram.  Antithesis  adds 
force  and  often  clearness. 

Interrogation  sometimes  gives  emphasis.  "  No  one 
can  doubt  that  the  prisoner,  had  he  been  really  guilty, 
would  have  shown  some  signs  of  remorse,"  is  not  so 
emphatic  as,  "  Who  can  doubt  that  the  prisoner,  had  he 
been  really  guilty,  would  have  shown  some  signs  of 
remorse?" 

VERSIFICATION  AND  POETRY. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  making  verses. 

A  Verse  is  a  metrical  line,  of  a  length  and  rhythm  de- 
termined by  fixed  rules. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  in  syllables,  which  begin 
differently,  but  end  alike. 

A  Couplet  consists  of  two  verses  rhyming  together. 

A  Triplet  consists  of  three  verses  rhyming  together. 

A  Stanza  is  a  regular  division  of  a  poem,  conisting  of 
two  or  more  verses.  It  is  often  incorrectly  called  a  verse. 

Syllables  occurring  in  verse  are  long  or  short.  A  long 
syllable  is  equivalent  to  two  short  syllables.  The  accent- 
ed syllables  of  words  are  always  long;  the  unaccented 
syllables  are  always  short.  Monosyllables  are  either  long 
or  short,  according  to  their  position  and  emphasis;  their 
quantity  can  be  determined  by  the  ear. 

A  Foot  is  a  division  of  a  verse,  consisting  of  two  or 
three  syllables. 


164  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

The  feet  most  used  in  English  poetry  are  Iambic, 
Trochaic,  Spondaic,  Anapaestic  and  Dactylic. 

The  Iambus  consists  of  two  syllables,  the  second  of 
which  is  accented. 

The  Trochee  has  two  syllables,  the  first  of  which  is 
accented. 

The  Spondee  is  a  foot  of  two  syllables,  both  of  which 
are  accented. 

The  Anapaest  contains  three  syllables,  the  last  of 
which  is  accented. 

The  Dactyl  has  three  syllables,  the  first  of  which  is 
accented. 

Beivare  is  an  Iambus;  mercy,  a  Trochee;  outside,  a 
Spondee;  referee,  an  Anapaest;  beautiful,  a  Dactyl. 

Rhythm  is  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  syllables 
according  to  sound. 

Meter  is  the  system  according  to  which  verses  are 
formed. 

The  Monometer  is  a  line  of  one  foot;  the  Dimeter, 
of  two  feet ;  the  Trimeter,  of  three  feet ;  the  Tetrameter, 
of  four  feet ;  the  Pentameter,  of  five  feet ;  the  Hexame- 
ter, of  six  feet;  the  Heptameter,  of  seven  feet. 

A  line  at  the  end  of  which  a  syllable  is  wanting  to  com- 
plete the  meter  is  called  catqlectic. 

Blank  Verse  is  verse  that  does  not  rhyme. 

Mixed  Verse  is  the  term  used  when  there  are  different 
kinds  of  feet  in  the  same  line. 

Scanning  is  the  process  of  dividing  a  line  into  the  feet 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

Alliteration  is  a  term  used  to  denote  a  correspondence 
of  sound  in  two  or  more  initial  consonants  or  vowels;  as, 
"And  now  is  religion  a  rider,  a  roamer  by  the  streets," 
"7n  /taly  or  /ndia,  in  Austria  or  Albany."  While 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC.  165 

rhymes  generally  occur  at  the  ends  of  lines,  consonances 
are  not  infrequent  within  a  single  line,  and  usually  quicken 
the  measure,  as: 

"I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsting  flowers," 

In  correct  rhymes  the  last  vowel  sounds  must  be  iden- 
tical, and  the  preceding  consonants  must  be  different. 
But  consonants,  where  following  the  last  vowels,  should 
be  identical  in  sound. 

In  Double  Rhyme  the  first  only  in  each  pair  of  chim- 
ing syllables  must  be  accented,  and  the  unaccented  syl- 
lables should  be  identical  in  sound. 

Triple  Rhyme  denotes  the  resemblance  of  sound 
between  feet  of  three  syllables.  The  last  two  syllables 
are  unaccented. 

Many  rules,  relative  to  the  harmony  of  verse,  might 
be  cited,  but  a  musical  ear  is  the  best  guide  in  writing 
or  analyzing  verse. 

Lines  may  be  combined  into  an  infinite  variety  of 
stanzas,  the  enumeration  of  which  would  be  superfluous. 

Iambic  measures,  being  easiest  of  construction,  form 
the  great  body  of  our  poetry.  They  are  adapted  to  ex- 
press all  emotions.  Trochaic  measures  are  peculiarly 
appropriate  to  gay  and  tender  sentiments;  Anapaestic, 
to  what  is  animated,  forcible,  or  soul-stirring.  Dactylic 
verse,  being  the  most  difficult  to  write,  is  rare.  It  is 
effective  when  a  rapid  movement  is  desirable,  and  has 
been  used  with  success  in  humorous  poetry. 

An  Epic  poem  is  a  poetical  recital  of  great  and  heroic 
enterprises. 

Dramatic  poems  rank  with  Epics  in  dignity  and  ex- 
cellence. 

The  Lyric  poem,  as  its  name  implies,  was  originally 
intended  to  be  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre. 


166  PHILOSOPHY   OF   RHETORIC. 

It  is  the  oldest  form  of  poetry,  and  contains  some  of  the 
highest  specimens  of  the  poetic  art.  It  is  used  mainly 
for  the  portrayal  of  sentiment  and  emotion. 

A  Pastoral  poem  is  properly  that  which  celebrates 
shepherd  or  rural  life. 

A  Didactic  poem  aims  chiefly  to  give  instruction. 

A  Satire  is  a  poem  intended  to  hold  up  the  follies 
of  men  to  ridicule. 


PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS. 

The  principal  points,  used  in  written  composition  to 
make  the  sense  clear,  are  the  comma  [  ,  ],  the  semicolon 
[  ;  ],  the  colon  [  :  ],  the  period  [  .  ],  and  the  interrogation 

[?]. 

The  Comma  marks  the  shortest  natural  pause  in  a 
sentence.  It  groups  the  words  immediately  related  in 
grammar  or  sense,  and  indicates  where  their  connection 
is  interrupted.  It  separates  adjectives,  and  is  used  after 
nouns,  verbs,  and  adjectives  where  and  is  omitted.  It 
separates  a  series  of  assertions  relating  to  the  same  nom- 
inative, and  not  connected  by  a  conjunction.  It  is  used 
before  a  qualifying  clause  introduced  by  a  relative,  and 
marks  off  a  relative  clause  not  necessary  to  the  antece- 
dent. When  the  nominative  is  a  clause,  a  comma  is 
often  placed  after  it.  It  is  put  on  both  sides  of  an  ex- 
planatory clause,  without  which  the  sentence  would  be 
verbally  complete.  It  is  used  after  an  address,  and  fol- 
lows nay,  however,  finally,  at  least,  etc.  It  is  employed 
after  a  nominative  where  the  verb  is  understood. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  similarly  to  the  comma,  but 
indicates  a  remoter  connection  in  the  clause  that  follows. 
Reasons  are  preceded  by  semicolons.  When  clauses  are 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    RHETORIC.  l6/ 

placed  in  opposition,  they  are  separated  by  a  semicolon, 
Several  members  dependent  on  a  common  clause  follow 
semicolons. 

The  Colon  generally  indicates  that  the  sentence  might 
grammatically  be  regarded  as  closed,  but  that  something 
follows  without  which  its  full  force  would  be  lost.  This 
point  is  used  after  a  general  statement,  followed  by  the 
specification  of  two  or  more  heads.  A  direct  quotation 
is  usually  introduced  by  a  colon. 

The  Period  marks  the  close  of  a  sentence,  and  shows 
that  the  construction  is  complete.  It  is  also  employed 
to  mark  abbreviations  in  proper  names,  titles,  etc. 

The  Interrogation  follows  questions  put  by  the  writer, 
or  directly  reported.  It  should  not  be  used  when  the 
question  is  indirectly  .reported. 

Besides  the  points  already  named,  several  others  are 
used  for  similar  purposes.  The  most  common  are :  The 
Exclamation  [  !  ],  the  Dash  [  —  ],  Parentheses  [  ( )  ], 
Brackets  [  []  ],  Quotation-marks  [  "  "  ],  the  Apostrophe 
[  '  ],  the  Hyphen  [  -  ]. 

The  Exclamation,  used  after  apostrophes  or  expres- 
sions of  violent  emotion,  should  seldom  appear  in  ordi- 
nary prose. 

The  Dash  is  employed  when  a  clause  is  obviously 
thrust  into  the  sentence,  and  has  less  connection  with  it 
than  would  be  indicated  by  commas. 

Parentheses  are  used,  like  the  dash,  to  inclose  words 
which  have  little  or  no  connection  with  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  in  a  sentence  a  word  or 
words  not  forming  a  part  of  the  original  composi- 
tion. 

The    marks  of  Quotation  are   two  inverted    commas 


168  PHILOSOPHY   OF    RHETORIC. 

placed  at  the  beginning,  and  two  apostrophes  at  the  end 
of  what  is  quoted. 

The  Apostrophe  is  a  comma  placed  above  the  line. 
It  is  used  chiefly  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  or 
letters.  It  is  also  used  before  or  after  s  suffixed  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  place  it  in  the  possessive  case. 

The  Hyphen  is  employed  to  separate  a  compound  word 
into  its  component  parts,  or  to  divide  a  word  into  its  syl- 
lables for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  pronunciation. 

Capitals  mark  the  first  word  of  a  sentence,  or  of  a 
line  of  verse;  the  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation; 
the  personal  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  O;  proper 
names,  high  titles,  and  names  of  the  Deity;  very  em- 
phatic words,  and  names  of  personified  objects. 


WORDS   AND    PHRASES. 


169 


WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


The  space  reserved  for  this,  the  closing  section  of 
M  Pure  English,"  may  appropriately  be  devoted  to  a  brief 
review  of  the  peculiarities  of  language.  Many  of  the 
errors  here  cited  cannot  strictly  be  classified  under  the 
head  of  either  grammar  or  rhetoric,  but  are  often  vio- 
lations of  both.  The  laws  of  style  have  been  ex- 
plained, and  we  may  now  with  propriety  show  by  fam- 
iliar examples  how  and  in  what  a  variety  of  ways  the 
English  language  is  abused  in  conversation  and  writing. 
Taken  all  in  all,  the  section  may  prove  to  be  amusing  as 
well  as  instructive. 


OBJECTIONABLE  AND  OBSOLETE  WORDS. 

Few  persons  have  any  clear  conception  of  the  correct 
use  of  O  and  O/i.  It  may  be  thus  explained :  Oh  is  prop- 
erly used  only  as  an  interjection  expressive  of  pain,  woe, 
or  surprise.  O  is  used  for  the  sign  of  address ;  for  the 
expression  of  a  wish  or  an  invocation ;  to  introduce  an 
exclamatory  phrase;  and,  colloquially,  as  an  unmeaning 
introduction  to  a  sentence  when  it  might  be  omitted  with- 
out affecting  the  sense. 

The  words  here,  there,  and  where  should  be  preferred  to 
hither,  thither,  and  whither.  Converser  is  also  preferable 

171 


1/2  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

to  conversationist,  or  conversationalist;  agriculturist  to 
agriculturalist,  which  is  condemned  by  Webster  as  im- 
proper and  unusual. 

Prevent ative  is  similarly  misused  for  preventive.  Ser- 
aphim is  the  plural  of  seraph,  a  distinction  which  is  often 
ignored.  "  How  high  did  the  tide  raise  to-day  ?  "  Here 
raise  is  improperly  used  for  rise. 

The  plural  of  spoonful  is  often  incorrectly  formed  by 
adding  s  to  the  first  instead  of  the  second  syllable,  thus 
making  it  spoonsful,  where  it  should  be  spoonfuls. 

It  is  inelegant  to  say  tasty  and  tastily  for  tasteful  and 
tastefully.  According  to  Professor  Mathews,  the  letter  s 
in  the  word,  folks  is  superfluous,  since  plurality  is  implied 
by  folk,  but  folks,  in  many  instances,  seems  to  be  sanc- 
tioned by  usage. 

Gotten,  while  it  is  still  English,  is  nearly  obsolete, 
although  many  persons  have  a  strange  preference  for  its 
use.  Got  is  a  shorter  and  better  word. 

We  often  hear  illy  used  in  the  sense  of  /'//.  The  Eng- 
lish language  contains  no  such  word  as  illy. 

It  is  common  to  see  advertised  "  a  sett  of  furniture  for 
sale."  Set  is  always  the  proper  word. 

Biddable,  a  spurious  word,  is  often  used  for  obedient. 
Unbeknown  is  obsolete,  and  should  not  be  used  for  un- 
known. 

Banister  is  a  common  barbarism.  The  proper  word  is 
baluster,  or  balustrade. 

It  is  very  vulgar  to  use  overly  for  over  in  such  expres- 
sions as,  "  He  is  not  overly  particular." 

" Disremember,  often  employed  in  the  sense  of  do  not 
remember,  although  given  in  Webster,  is  condemned  by 
the  critics  as  a  low  vulgarism.  Despisable  should  never 
be  used  for  despicable. 


WORDS    AND     PHRASES.  1/3 

It  is  common  to  hear  step  affectedly  used  for  zvalk,  in 
such  phrases  as,  "step  in;"  "he  has  just  stepped  out"  etc. 
No  one  can  walk  without  stepping;  so,  in  itself,  there  is  no 
objection  to  the  phrase  "  step  in."  But  it  is  one  which, 
with  the  meaning  of  an  invitation  to  enter,  should  not  be 
used  by  intelligent  people.  It  is  properly  used  in  the 
following  expressions:  "step  aside;"  "step  under  this 
shelter."  In  all  cases  where  step  is  correctly  used,  the 
space  of  time  occupied  by  the  act  is  little  more  than 
momentary.  In  inviting  one  to  enter,  we  wish  to  draw 
particular  attention  neither  to  the  time  consumed  in  the 
act,  nor  to  the  mode  of  its  performance.  We  refer  merely 
to  the  result,  which  is  iv  diking. 

It  is  questionable  taste  to  call  a  coffin  a  casket.  The 
pleasing  name  applicable  to  a  case  for  jewels  does  not 
lessen  the  dread  of  death  and  burial. 

It  is  a  provincialism  to  use  hoiv  interrogatively  for 
what;  as,  "  You  are  looking  well  to-day."  "  How  ? " 
The  word  babe,  although  perfectly  correct,  should  be 
reserved  for  language  higher  than  that  of  familiar  con- 
versation. The  household  term  baby  is  ordinarily  pref- 
erable, and  far  less  pretentious. 

"  The  boiler  has  bursted?  is  not  an  uncommon  ex- 
pression; but  bursted  is  not  pure  English,  burst  being  the 
preterit  and  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  burst. 

Sweat,  in  exceptional  cases,  is  better  than  perspiration. 
It  is  ridiculous  to  say,  " the  horse  perspires''  We  may, 
with  propriety,  speak  of  giving  a  siveat  to  a  patient,  or 
say  that  a  person  is  subject  to  night  sweats.  "  In  the 
sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread."  The  subject  is 
here  not  only  solemn,  but  the  language  is  figurative,  con- 
veying the  idea  of  hard  labor,  and  the  use  of  sweat  is, 

accordingly,  unobjectionable.     Except  ip  medical  treat- 

^-~ 

• 
0? 


1/4  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

ment,  however,  sweat,  as  applied  to  mankind,  is  offen- 
sive, specially  when  it  has  direct  personal  application  on 
ordinary  occasions ;  as,  "  I  am  in  a  violent  szveat" 

Buried  is  often  used  in  a  slovenly  way  for  lost ;  as,  "  I 
buried  my  husband  last  week."  This  is  not  the  most 
refined  manner  of  announcing  so  sad  an  event  as  death. 
If  a  woman  were  to  say,  "  I  lost  my  husband  last  week," 
no  one  would  suppose  that  she  had  dropped  him  in  the 
street,  or  that  he  had  run  away. 

The  letter  s  has  been  added  to  several  words  ending 
in  ward,  such  as  toward,  backward,  forward,  upivard, 
onward,  dowmvard,  hitJierward,  thitherward^  afterward, 
heavenward,  etc.  The  s,  in  all  such  cases',  is  as  improper 
as  it  is  superfluous. 

Controvertist  is  a  legitimately  formed  word,  and  should 
always  be  preferred  to  controversialist,  which,  although  it 
has  the  sanction  of  Webster,  is  classed  as  a  spurious 
word  by  that  learned  philologist,  Edward  S.  Gould. 

Underhanded  is  an  illegitimate  word.  It  is  formed  by 
adding  to  the  adjective  underhand  a  participle  termina- 
tion; but  the  addition  still  leaves  the  word  an  adjective 
without  modifying  the  sense  of  the  true  word.  There  is 
no  verb  to  underhand,  and  no  noun  underhand  horn  which 
such  a  compound  as  underhanded  could  be  made.  The 
addition  of  ed,  accordingly,  makes  the  word  a  mere  vul- 
garism, the  same  as  it  would  make  of  beforehand  and  be- 
JiindJiand.  Still,  the  word,  base  coinage  as  it  is,  passes 
current  in  the  dictionaries. 

The  entire  number  of  English  words  denoting  persons, 
which  properly  take  the  ess  to  designate  the  female  sex, 
is  very  small.  The  majority  of  these  are  titles,  where 
the  discrimination  is  a  necessity,  as  abbess,  baroness, 
duchess,  countess,  empress,  princess,  etc.,  or  else  words 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  175 

primarily  suggesting  men,  and  accordingly  requiring  the 
change  when  applied  to  women ;  as,  ambassador, governor, 
hunter,  priest,  prophet,  etc.  But  such  words  as  actor, 
actress,  benefactor,  benefactress,  patron,  patroness  are  sanc- 
tioned by  long  usage.  Poetess  and  authoress,  although 
very  common,  are  in  defiance  of  all  principles  of  philol- 
ogy. Poet  means  simply  a  person  who  writes  poetry; 
author  a  person  who  writes  poetry  or  prose — not  a  man, 
but  a  person.  Hence,  authoress  and  poetess  are  super- 
fluous. So,  also,  are  such  words  as  conductress,  directress, 
inspectress,  waitress,  etc.,  all  of  which  have  recently  come 
into  current  use.  Perhaps  the  next  edition  of  our  dic- 
tionaries will,  if  the  custom  continue,  be  enriched  by  the 
addition  of  such  words  as  writer  ess,  officer  ess,  carpenteress, 
manageress,  secretaryess.  treasureress,  singeress,  ivalkeress, 
talkeress,  etc. 

It  is  a  common  yet  awkward  custom  to  use  serve  in 
such  expressions  as :  "I  will  serve  you  with  all  the 
groceries  you  require."  A  better  and  more  exact  word 
in  such  a  construction  is  supply.  "  I  will  serve  you  to 
the  best  of  my  ability,"  implies  service,  and  illustrates 
the  correct  use  of  serve. 

We  should  also  be  careful  to  write  casualty,  not  casuality; 
specialty,  not  speciality.  Amid  and  among  are  shorter 
words  than  amidst  and  amongst,  and  are,  in  the  opinion 
of  competent  critics,  entitled  to  the  preference. 

Bulldoze  has  recently  been  recognized  by  Webster, 
but  it  is  none  the  less  objectionable  to  refined  ears.  In- 
timidate is  an  older  and  purer  word,  and  should  accord- 
ingly be  preferred. 

The  abbreviation  of  sewerage  into  sewage,  and  of  strate- 
getic  into  strategic  is  also  objectionable,  and  in  violation 
of  the  principles  of  etymology.  We  could,  on  the  same 


176  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

principle,  change  anchorage  to  anchage;  theoretical  to 
theorical,  etc.  Both  of  the  words  criticised  are  given  in  the 
dictionaries,  but  that  is  hardly  sufficient  authority  to  make 
them  legitimate.  "Dictionaries,"  says  Richard  Grant 
White,  "  have  come  tobe,  in  too  many  cases,  the  pernicious 
record  of  unreasonable,  unwarranted,  and  fleeting  usage." 

Flowed  is  the  participle  of  the  verb  to  flow ;  flown,  of 
to  fly.  "  The  river  has  overflown"  is  accordingly  erro- 
neous, the  proper  word  being  overflowed. 

Myself  is  properly  used  either  as  a  reflective  pronoun, 
or  for  the  sake  of  distinction  and  emphasis;  as  when 
Juliet  says:  "  Romeo,  doff  thy  name,  and  for  that  name, 
which  is  no  part  of  thee,  take  all  myself"  It  is  frequently 
misused  for  I ;  as,  "  The  Governor  and  myself  will  be 
pleased  to  accept  your  invitation,"  etc. 

Enthuse  is  a  pet  word  of  the  pulpit  and  the  press,  but 
it  has  not  yet  been  admitted  into  the  dictionaries. 

The  terms  former,  latter,  eitJier,  and  neither  signify 
one  of  two,  and  accordingly  should  not  be  used  in  the 
sense  of  the  first,  the  last,  any  one,  or  no  one,  which  mean 
one  of  three  or  more. 

The  relatives  this  and  these  should  be  used  only  in 
reference  to  that  which  is  near,  in  fact  or  thought ;  tJiat 
and  those  to  objects  remote  or  hateful. 

Them  is  vulgarly  used  for  those  in  such  expressions  as, 
"  tliem  boys,"  "  tliem  books,"  etc. 

Farther  and  fart/test  (positive  far)  denote  place  or  dis- 
tance; as,  "  the  farther  he  advanced,"  etc.  Further  and 
furthest  (positive  fore  or  forth)  denote  quantity  or  ad- 
dition; as,  "  I've  nothing  further  to  do." 

Stand-point,  although  it  is  given  in  our  dictionaries,  is 
very  objectionable.  We  should  use  in  its  place  the  words 
point  of  view. 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  1 77 

Nice.  Says  Professor  Mathews  concerning  this  word : 
"  One  of  the  most  offensive  barbarisms  now  prevalent,  is 
the  use  of  this  as  a  pet  word  to  express  almost  every 
kind  of  approbation;  and  almost  every  quality.  Strictly, 
nice  can  be  used  only  in  a  subjective,  not  in  an  objective 
sense;  though  both  of  our  leading  lexicographers  ap- 
prove of  such  expressions  as,  *  a  nice  bit  of  cheese.'  Of 
the  vulgarity  of  such  expressions  as,  '  a  nice  man  '  (mean- 
ing a  good  or  pleasing  man),  '  a  nice  day,'  '  a  nice  party/ 
etc.,  there  cannot  be  a  shadow  of  doubt." 

The  tendency  to  use  small  or  little  instead  of  trifling  or 
slight,  is  very  general ,  as,  "  A  small  alteration,"  <f  a  little 
absurdity."  Large  is  similarly  misused  for  great;  as, 
"  A  large  degree  of  happiness,"  etc. 

Following  is  the  rule  given  by  Webster  relative  to  the 
use  of  an,  which  has  been  mentioned  in  the  "  Vocabulary  ": 
"  It  is  used  before  h  sounded,  when  the  accent  of  the 
word  falls  on  any  syllable  except  the  first." 

The  following  may  be  mentioned  among  the  many 
obsolete  words  which  are  still  used  occasionally :  HigJit, 
whilom,  inly,  behest,  erst,  circumstantiate,  belikely,  whenas, 
intendment,  yclept,  oratorial,  erewhile,  be^vray,  irks,  quoth, 
sith,  stroam,  ivist,  wot. 


FAULTY  PHRASES. 

At  all  is  a  needless  expletive,  as  illustrated  in  the  sen- 
tence: "I  cannot  write  at  all"  In  all  such  cases  it  can 
be  advantageously  omitted. 

In  our  midst  is  a  faulty  phrase,  which  is  equivalent 
to  in  our  middle.  We  should  properly  say,  among  us. 

The  masses  is  a  popular  yet  very  absurd  phrase. 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

denotes  a  collection,  and  its  plural  should  not  be  used 
for  people. 

Crushed  in  and  crushed  out  are  the  silliest  of  solecisms. 
Why  should  we  say:  "  The  Rebellion  has  been  crushed 
out"  or  "crushed  in"  when  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  say 
that  "The  Rebellion  has  been  crushed " ? 

Higher  up  and  lower  down  are  similar  violations  of 
propriety.  Instead  of  saying  "  Hang  the  hat  higher  up, 
or  lower  down  on  the  rack,"  we  should  say:  "  Hang  the 
hat  higher  or.  lower  on  the  rack."  It  is  impossible  for 
anything  to  be  lower  up,  or  higher  down,  hence  the  use  of 
up  and  down  in  such  phrases  is  as  absurd  as  it  is  super- 
fluous. 

I  differ  with  you  is  a  common  yet  erroneous  remark, 
the  use  of  with  implying  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  is 
intended.  "  I  differ  from  you,"  meaning  "my  views  are 
different  from  yours,"  is  the  proper  expression. 

The  use  of  wearies  for  is  wearied;  as,  "  The  reader 
soon  wearies  of  such  stories,"  is  in  bad  taste. 

Anyhow,  while  permissible,  perhaps,  as  a  colloquialism, 
is  a  vulgar  phrase,  and  should  be  avoided  in  written 
composition. 

It  is  very  silly  to  speak  of  the  final  completion  of  any 
task,  since  every  completion  is  necessarily  final ;  the  ad- 
jective is  superfluous. 

"  He  possessed  wonderful  equanimity  of  wind"  Since 
equanimity  means  evenness  of  mind,  why  should  of  mind 
be  repeated  ?  "  Anxiety  of  mind  "  is  less  objectionable, 
but  equanimity  is  in  itself  sufficient. 

We  often  hear  the  expression,  "  You  are  deceiving  me" 
when  the  opposite  is  meant ;  namely,  "  You  are  trying  to 
deceive  me." 

From   thence  and  from  whence   are   stupid    solecisms. 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES 

The  adverbs  tJience  and  whence  literally  supply  the  place 
of  a  noun  and  preposition,  and  a  preposition  should  not 
be  used  with  them. 

Weakness  cannot  be  strong,  hence  the  idleness  of  the 
phrase  "  a  confirmed  invalid!'  How  is  it  possible  for  one 
to  be  a  confirmed,  or  strengthened  invalid? 

"  Equally  well"  is  the  proper  phrase  not  equally  as  welL 

In  the  phrase  "  all  of  them"  of  means  out  of,  and  is 
accordingly  incorrectly  used.  We  may  say:  "Take  one 
of  them,"  or,  "  Take  them  all,"  but  the  phrase  criticised 
is  wholly  unjustifiable. 

Persons  who  are  sick  arc  frequently  and  erroneously 
said  to  be  dangerous,  when  the  meaning  is  simply  that 
they  are  in  danger. 

We  often  hear  of  "  setting-rooms"  and  " setting  liens ;  " 
both  phrases  are  wrong,  and  should  be  "sitting-rooms" 
and  " sitting  hens" 

Tol  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  should  never  be  separated 
from  the  verb.  Hence  the  inaccuracy  of  the  phrase: 
"  To  extremely  maltreat"  It  should  be,  "  To  maltreat 
extremely,"  or,  " Extremely  to  maltreat" 

"  I  can  catch  the  car,"  is  a  blundering  expression.  It  is 
possible  for  any  one  to  overtake,  or  reacli  a  car,  but  not  to 
catch  it. 

The  comparative  adjectives  wiser,  better,  larger,  etc., 
also  the  contracting  adjectives  other,  different,  etc.,  are 
often  awkwardly  misplaced;"  as,  "That  is  a  much  better 
statement  of  the  case  than  yours ; "  "  Yours  is  a  larger  plot 
of  ground  than  John's ;"  "  This  is  a  different  course  of  pro- 
ceeding from  what  I  expected;"  "I  could  take  no  other 
method  of  silencing  him  than  the  one  I  took."  These 
sentences  should  be  thus  altered :  "  That  statement  of 
the  case  is  much  better  than  yours;"  "Your  plot  of 


180  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

« 

ground  is  larger  than  John's;"  "  That  course  of  proceed- 
ing is  different  from  what  I  expected;"  "I  could  take  no 
method  of  silencing  him  oilier  than  the  one  I  took." 

"  What  do  you  know  of  his  antecedents  ? "  in  popular 
usage,  is  a  faulty  expression.  The  idea  here  intended 
to  be  conveyed  is,  "What  do  you  know  of  his  past 
life?"  Antecedent  may,  in  certain  cases,  be  logically 
used  as  a  substantive ;  as,  "  General  Sherman's  antecedents 
in  the  United  States  army  were  General  Washington, 
General  Scott,  and  General  Grant,"  that  is  to  say,  they 
were  his  predecessors  in  office. 

A  silly  expression  also  is,  "  He  rushed  pell-mell  into 
the  office."  Pell-mell  implies  confusion,  and  a  crowd, 
and  cannot  accordingly  be  properly  applied  to  an  indi- 
vidual. A  crowd  may  enter  a  place  pell-mell,  but  how 
any  one  of  the  crowd  can  do  so,  it  is  impossible  to 
conceive. 

The  phrase  "  at  length  "  is  often  used  instead  of  at  last. 
"  I  heard  from  my  friend  at  length"  means,  I  heard  from 
him  fully;  "I  heard  from  my  friend  at  last"  means, 
I  heard  from  him  after  a  long  delay. 

The  phrase  "in  so  far  as"  is  a  variation  of  "in  that" 
the  principal  difference  between  them  being  that  while 
one  has  too  few  words,  the  other  has  too  many.  It  seems 
strange  that  so  clumsy  a  phrase  could  become  current, 
the  in  being  superfluous. 

"Of  all  others"  is  a  current  and  blundering  phrase;  as, 
"A  stain  of  all  others  the  most  difficult  to  expunge." 
Corrected  it  would  read:  "A  stain  above  all  others  the 
most  difficult  to  expunge;  "  or  else,  "A  stain  of  all  steins 
the  most  difficult  to  expunge."  The  introduction  of  the 
word  others  into  the  first  cited  sentence,  excludes  from 
the  class  the  very  thing  named. 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  l8l 

It  is  better  to  say  a  half  than  one  half,  since  there  can 
be  only  one  Jialfy  because  two  halves  make  a  whole.  It 
is  different  with  quarters,  etc.,  and  we  may,  with  pro- 
priety, speak  of  one  quarter,  three  eighths,  etc. 

We  are  continually  reading  in  the  daily  press  of  some 
new  enterprise  which  has  been  "opened  up'.'  The  up  is 
here  superfluous,  not  to  say  nonsensical. 

The  words  out  and  from  are  sometimes  ludicrously 
reversed.  Following  is  an  example  from  Scott: 

"The  irsiinfroj/i  out  the  castle  drew, 
But  Marmion  stopped  to  bid  adieu." 

To  "  dt&wfrom  out  the  castle  "  would  be  to  draw  into  the 
castle.  If  the  italicized  words  were  transposed  in  the 
lines  quoted,  the  difficulty  would  be  overcome. 

It  is  considered,  by  many  critics,  to  be  in  better  taste 
to  say:  "I  live  in  Pine  street,"  than  to  say,  "I  live  on 
Pine  street." 

"Agreeably  disappointed"  is  a  common  but  contra- 
dictory phrase.  What  is  meant  is,  "  agreeably  surprised." 
A  disappointment  cannot  very  well  be  agreeable. 

"New  beginner"  is  a  phrase  as  tautological  as  it  is 
silly.  A  common  expression,  "  The  greatest  0/ pleasure" 
is  also  incorrect.  The  of  should  be  omitted. 

The  phrase  "fare  thee  well"  although  coined  by  Byron, 
is  incorrectly  used  in  the  sense  of  farewell,  which  is  not 
its  literal  meaning. 

"  You  know"  "says  /,"  " says  he"  and  "says  she"  are 
common  phrases  among  the  illiterate.  You  know  is 
allowable  sometimes,  but  the  others  seldom  if  ever. 
Time  past  cannot  be  described  with  the  language  denoting 
the  present.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  they 
are  not  applicable  to  the  case  in  point. 


182  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 


One  makes  a  call,  or  pays  a  visit.  "  Theyfr^/  /^0  lines  " 
is  a  better  phrase  generally  than  "the  t^tvo  first  lines." 

The  reciprocal  each  oilier  applies  to  two  objects;  one 
another  to  more  than  two. 

A  plural  adjective  cannot  limit  a  singular  noun,  hence 
the  inaccuracy  of  "  tiwse  sort  of  people."  "  This  sort  of 
people  "  is  the  proper  phrase. 

"A  house  and  orchard,"  is  wrong.  It  should  be  "a 
house  and  an  orchard,"  the  rule  being  that  if  the  second 
member  of  a  compound  sentence  requires  a  different 
article  from  the  first,  it  must  not  be  omitted. 

Co-ordinate  constructions  should  be  similar  and  pro- 
portionate ;  as,  "  I  saw  him  enter  the  gate  and  ring  the 
bell;"  not,  "  I  saw  him  entering  the  gate  and  ring  the 
bell." 

The  verb  to  be,  with  its  subject,  in  dependent  clauses, 
may  be  often  advantageously  omitted  after  the  connec- 
tives if,  though,  yet  t  when,  etc.;  as,  "Study,  if  [it  is]  neg- 
lected, becomes  irksome." 

"The  good  ones!'  "the  little  ones"  etc.,  are  common 
phrases,  but  of  doubtful  propriety.  The  objection  to 
them  lies  in  the  strange  use  of  the  word  one  in  the  plural 
form.  How  can  there  be  two  ones  ? 

"I  have  got  it"  is  a  popular  yet  clearly  erroneous 
phrase,  the  use  of  got  in  this  connection  being  superfluous. 
"  I  have  it  "  is  the  correct  expression. 

u  /  shall  have  great  pleasure  in  accepting  your  invita- 
tion "  is  an  expression  illustrating  a  common  misuse  of 
the  future  tense.  We  should  say,  "  I  have  great  pleasure 
in  accepting  your  invitation." 

Prepositions,  which  are  necessary  to  make  the  con- 
struction complete,  are  often  improperly  omitted.  But 
in  the  following  expression  the  error  lies  in  the  non- 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  183 

repetition  of  the  preposition :  "  Ignorant  miners  were 
terrorized  into  voting  under  penalty  of  excommunication 
from  church  privileges  in  this  world,  and  [of]  damnation 
in  the  next." 

The  meaning  of  a  sentence  may  be  likewise  perverted 
by  the  non-repetition  of  conjunctions. 


WORDS  OF, DUAL  MEANING. 

The  world  of  words  is  replete  with  wonders,  and  while 
it  is  true  that  there  are  few  literal  synonyms  in  our  lan- 
guage, it  is  equally  true,  and  even  more  surprising,  that 
there  are  many  words  possessing  a  dual  and  contra- 
dictory meaning,  according  to  the  sense  in  which  they 
are  used. 

To  illustrate:  The  word  nervous  may  mean  either 
having  or  wanting  nerve.  A  nervous  writer  is  one  who 
has  a  vigorous  style;  a  nervous  man  is  one  who  is  weak, 
sensitive  to  trifles,  easily  excited. 

A  clock  is  called  fast  when  it  goes  too  quickly;  but  a 
man  is  told  to  stand  fast  when  it  is  desired  that  he  shall 
stand  still. 

The  adjective  mortal  means  both  deadly  and  liable  to 
death.  Thus  we  say :  "  The  wound  was  mortal"  meaning 
it  was  deadly;  "Man  is  mortal"  indicating  that  his  life  is 
not  everlasting. 

Cleave  may  mean  either  to  adhere  to  closely,  or  to 
split,  or  rent  asunder. 

The  word  dear  has  the  two  meanings  of  prized  be- 
cause we  have  it,  and  expensive  because  we  want  it. 

Post,  from  the  Latin  placed,  is  used  in  various  senses ; 
as,  /w/-office,  /w/-haste,  /tatf-horses,  etc.  The  contradic- 


184  "WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

tion  in  these  meanings  is  more  apparent  than  real.     The 
idea  of  placing  is  common  to  them  all. 

To  let  generally  means  to  permit;  but  in  the  Bible,  in 
Shakespeare,  and  in  legal  parlance  it  often  has  the 
opposite  meaning.  Thus  Hamlet  says:  "I'll  make  a 
ghost  of  him  that  lets  me,"  that  is,  interferes  with  or 
obstructs  me ;  and  in  law-books  "  without  Id  or  hindrance  " 
is  a  common  phrase. 

The  word  lee  has  very  different  acceptations  in  fee-side 
and  fee-shore.  The  fee-side  of  a  ship  is  the  side  that  is 
sheltered  from  the  wind ;  a  fee-shore  is  a  shore  exposed 
to  the  wind. 

The  prefixes  un  and  /'//  are  equivocal.  Commonly 
they  have  a  negative  force,  as  in  unnecessary,  incomplete. 
But  sometimes,  both  in  verbs  and  adjectives,  they  have  a 
positive  or  intensive  meaning,  as  in  the  words  intense, 
infatuated,  invaluable.  To  invigorate  implies  an  increase 
of  vigor  or  energy.  The  verb  unloose  should,  by  analogy, 
signify  to  tie,  just  as  untie  means  to  loose.  Inhabitable 
should  mean  not  Jiabitable,  according  to  the  general  sense 
of  in.  To  unravel  means  the  same  as  to  ravel ;  to  unrip, 
the  same  as  to  rip.  Johnson  sanctions  the  use  of  the  nega- 
tive prefix  in  these  two  words,  but  it  is  condemned  as 
superfluous  by  Richardson  and  Webster. 


CHANGES   IN   THE   MEANING   OF  WORDS,  ETC. 

It  is  surprising  to  note  the  changes  which  time  makes 
in  the  meaning  of  many  words,  and  how  strangely  sonic 
of  them  originate. 

Outsider,  now  current  English,  was  first  heard  in  1844 
in  the  convention  where  James  K.  Polk  was  nominated 
for  the  Presidency. 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  185 

Intensify  was  deliberately  coined  by  Coleridge  less  than 
sixty  years  ago,  because  there  was  then  no  other  word  in 
existence  which  would  express  the  particular  shade  of 
meaning  that  is  thus  conveyed. 

Starvation  was  first  used  by  Henry  Dundas,  in  1775,  in 
Parliament,  and  its  hybrid  formation  obtained  for  him 
the  nick-name  of  "  Starvation  Dundas." 

Opera,  umbrella,  suicide,  sculptor,  and  peninsula  are  no 
older  than  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Only  in  the  last  century  Bentley  found  it  necessary  to 
apologize  for  using  such  new  words  as  repudiate,  concede, 
vernacular,  timid,  and  idiom. 

Campbell,  in  1776,  marked  ignore  and  adroitness  as 
obsolete  words,  and  hesitated  about  continental,  sentimen- 
tal, originality,  criminality,  capability,  and  originate  on 
account  of  their  novelty. 

Reckless  was  commonly  used  until  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  then  became  so  nearly  obsolete 
that  Hooker,  who  used  it  in  1650,  explained  it  in  a  mar- 
ginal note.  It  has  since  been  revived,  and  is  now  in 
current  use. 

Abate  and  abandon,  after  an  active  existence  of  some 
centuries,  also  fell  into  disuse  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
but  arc  now  familiar  to  every  English-speaking  person. 

Prevent  which  once  meant  to  go  before,  now  means  to 
hinder. 

Resent  formerly  signified  to  reciprocate,  or  respond  to 
any  feeling,  good  or  bad.  Three  centuries  ago  a  man 
could  speak  of  resenting  a  favor,  as  well  as  an  injury. 

Censure  meant  originally,  the  expression  of  an  opinion, 
either  favorable  or  unfavorable.  It  is  now  restricted  to 
the  latter  sense. 

Liquidate  first  meant  to  melt.     Next  it  acquired  the 


186  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

meaning  of  making  clear  or  transparent     Now  it  means 
to  pay  off  debts. 

Admire,  in  Milton's  time,  meant,  like  its  Latin  original, 
to  wonder  at. 

Edify  originally  signified  to  build.  It  now  means  to 
instruct  and  entertain. 

Insolence.,  some  centuries  since,  bore  the  meaning  of 
unusual,  unaccustomed.  It  is  now  used  only  in  the 
sense  of  rude,  or  impertinent. 

Clerk  was  originally  a  clergyman,  next  a  college  stu- 
dent, and  is  now  one  who  sells  goods,  keeps  accounts,  etc. 
Station  is  used  by  Shakespeare  forposture ;  it  now  means 
place. 

The  titles   of  tyrant,  sophist,  and  parasite  were  once 
honorable  distinctions,  and  to  attach  to  them  their  mod- 
ern meaning  would  mislead  us  in  reading  ancient  history. 
Apology,  in  its  primitive  sense,  meant  a  vindication; 
now  it  is  an  excuse. 

Impertinent  formerly  signified  not  pertinent,  but  it  is 
now  used  solely  as  a  synonym  of  rude  or  insolent. 

Indifferent  was  once  used  in  the  sense  of  impartially, 
a  meaning  which  has  long  since  become  obsolete. 

Bishop  meant  originally  overseer;  priest  or  presbyter 
meant  elder;  deacon  meant  administrator;  and  sacrament^ 
a  vow  of  allegiance. 

Horrid  is  used  by  Milton  in  the  sense  of  bristling  in 
the  line,  "With  dangling  ice  all  horrid,"  He  also  speaks 
of  a  savage  (woody)  hill,  and  of  amiable  (lovely)  fruit. 

Tale  primarily  meant  to  count  or  number,  and  it  is 
thus  used  in  the  Bible  relative  to  the  Israelites,  who  were 
compelled  to  deliver  their  "tale  of  bricks."  We  still 
speak  of  "  keeping  tally','  of  "  untold  wealth,"  and  of 
"  the  sum  twice  told" 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  187 

Secret,  which  to-day  means  hidden  or  concealed,  is 
used  by  Milton  in  the  sense  of  remote,  lonely. 

Mystery  is  derived  from  mu,  in  imitation  of  closing  the 
lips. 

Anecdote  at  one  time  meant  a  fact  not  made  known, 
or  published ;  it  now  means  a  short,  pleasing  story. 

Allowance  was  once  used  in  the  sense  of  praise  or 
approval. 

Girl  was  the  name  formerly  applied  to  the  young  of 
either  sex,  and  ividow  was  used  to  designate  men  as  well 
as  women. 

AstonisJied,  the  literal  meaning  of  which  is  thunder- 
struck, is  now  used  in  the  sense  of  surprised. 

Sagacious  formerly  meant  keen  of  scent;  rascal  pri- 
marily signified  a  lean  and  worthless  deer,  afterward  the 
common  people,  and  now  means  a  knavish  or  worthless 
person. 

Naturalist  was  originally  applied  to  one  who  rejected 
revealed  truth,  and  believed  only  in  natural  religion. 
The  naturalist  is,  to-day,  one  learned  in  nature  and  her 
laws,  and  may  be  orthodox  in  his  belief. 

Blackguard,  which  to-day  implies  vulgarity  or  inde- 
cency, was  once  employed  to  denote  the  menials  in  a 
great  household,  such  as  scullions,  turnspits,  etc. 

Artillery,  now  meaning  heavy  ordnance,  once  signified 
any  implement  for  discharging  missiles  as  light  even  as 
the  bow  and  arrow. 

Bombast  originally  implied  cotton  padding;  it  now 
means  exaggerated  and  pompous  diction. 

Polite  once  meant  polished  or  brightened,  and  was  ap- 
plied to  mirrors:  now  it  applies  to  mankind  only. 

Caitiff  which  now  means  a  dastard,  originally  signified 
a  captive. 


188  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

Punctual,  formerly  used  in  relation  to  space  as  well  as 
time,  and  meaning  accurate  or  circumstantial,  is  now 
restricted  to  exactness  of  time  only. 

Miscreant  is  now  a  term  of  reproach,  although  it  once 
meant  simply  a  misbeliever. 

TJiongJit  in  early  times  implied  solicitude;  as,  "Take 
no  thought  for  your  life." 

Incomprehensible  now  means  inconceivable,  but  it  form- 
erly bore  the  meaning  of  immense. 

Wit  primarily  signified  the  mental  powers  collectively; 
next  quickness,  of  apprehension  or  elegance  in  composi- 
tion. It  is  now  used  in  a  sense  akin  to  that  of  humor. 

Relevant  once  bore  the  meaning  of  relieving  or  assist- 
ing, but  it  now  implies  a  relation  or  connection  between 
thoughts  or  circumstances. 

Exorbitant,  which  is  now  used  only  in  the  sense  of 
excessive,  at  one  time  signified  deviating  from  a  track  or 
an  orbit. 

Coincide  was  originally  a  mathematical  term  only,  and 
subsequently  came  to  be  applied  to  identity  of  opinion, 
or  of  fact,  but  was  not  fully  popularized  in  America  until 
1826. 

Paradise,  now  bearing  a  multitude  of  meanings,  among 
them  that  of  heaven,  in  olden  tongues  meant  only  a 
royal  park. 

Thing  has  gone  through  many  changes  of  meaning. 
It  originally  meant  discourse,  then,  solemn  discussion, 
council,  court  of  justice,  cause,  subject  of  discourse.  Its 
present  meaning  is  familiar  to  all. 

Coquette,  which  now  applies  exclusively  to  women,  was 
once  equally  applicable  to  men. 

Tobacconist  once  signified  a  consumer,  not  a  seller,  of 
tobacco. 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  189 

Corpse,  now  meaning  a-dead  body,  once  meant  the  body 
of  the  living  also. 

Regeneration^  with  the  Greeks,  referred  only  to  the 
earth  in  the  spring-time,  and  to  the  recollection  of  for- 
gotten knowledge. 

T kief  once  meant  one  of  the  servile  classes,  and  villain 
a  serf  who  tilled  the  soil.  The  modern  meaning  of 
these  words  is  of  a  far  more  degrading  character. 

Insolvent  formerly  meant  unusual ;  and  silly,  blessed ; 
while  officious  denoted  the  willingness  to  do  kind  acts. 

Idiot,  taken  from  the  Greek,  primarily  meant  the  pri- 
vate citizen,  in  contradistinction  to  the  office-holder ;  and 
facetious,  now  used  in  the  sense  of  jocular,  meant  urbane. 

Brat,  now  a  contemptuous  term,  was  once  the  ordinary 
name  for  child. 

Boor  once  implied  merely  a  farmer;  while  scamp  sig- 
nified a  camp  deserter. 

Speculation  has  an  eventful  history.  It  first  meant  the 
sense  of  sight,  and  next  acquired  the  meaning  of  mental 
vision ;  then  was  applied  to  the  theories  of  philosophers, 
and  has  finally  assumed  a  commercial  significance. 

Craft,  which  originally  signified  skill,  or  dexterity,  has 
come  to  mean  cunning;  while  cunning,  in  its  turn,  once 
conveyed  no  idea  of  sinister,  or  crooked  ways. 

Vagabond  denoted  originally  only  a  wanderer.  It  has 
now  come  to  be  a  term  of  reproach. 

Paramour  first  meant  a  lover,  merely;  while  minion 
was  a  favorite;  and  knave,  now  a  very  low  and  con- 
temptuous appellation,  once  had  the  harmless  meaning 
of  boy,  and  afterward  of  servant. 

Animosity,  the  modern  acceptation  of  which  implies 
enmity  and  hatred,  formerly  meant  spiritedness. 

Gossip  once  meant  a  sponsor  in  baptism.     Simple  and 


I9O  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

simplicity  have  also  degenerated  in  meaning.  A  simple 
fellow  once  indicated  a  man  without  duplicity,  but  the 
adjective  is  now  applied  to  one  who  lacks  shrewdness, 
and  is  easily  deceived. 

Cliaffer^  now  signifying  to  talk  much  and  idly,  meant 
primarily  to  buy,  to  bargain,  etc. 

Fello^cv  was  originally  a  term  of  respect;  now  it  is 
generally  suggestive  of  worthlessness,  if  not  of  positive 
immorality. 

Dunce,  now  used  as  a  synonym  of  stupidity,  was  once 
applied  to  the  followers  of  a  learned  man  named  Duns 
Scotus,  a  teacher  of  the  Franciscan  order,  who  flourished 
in  the  middle  ages. 

Saunterers  was  the  name  formerly  given  to  pilgrims 
to  the  Holy  Land. 

Bankrupt  means  literally  broken  bench. 

Stipulation  is  derived  from  sfipn/um,  a  straw,  which 
the  Romans  broke  when  they  made  a  mutual  engage- 
ment. 

Dexterity  is  simply  right-handedness;  mountebank,  a 
quack-medicine  vendor. 

Faint  is  derived  from  the  French  secfcindre,  to  pretend  ; 
hence,  originally  faintness  was  a  pretended  weakness,  or 
inability. 

Blue-stocking,  a  term  now  applied  to  literary  women, 
has  a  curious  origin.  It  was  used  in  reference  to  both 
sexes  in  England  in  1760.  The  literary  society  by  whom 
it  was  originated  took  its  name  from  the  blue  worsted 
stockings,  always  worn  by  Benjamin  Stillingflcct,  a  dis- 
tinguished writer.  Subsequently  the  term  was  bestowed 
on  literary  women,  because  of  the  blue  stockings  worn 
at  socials  and  literary  entertainments  by  the  charming 
and  accomplished  Mrs.  Jerningham. 


WORDS    AND     PHRASES.  IQI 

Person  primarily  meant  an  actor;  and  booby,  one  who 
gaped  and  stared  about  at  all  that  he  saw. 

Sarcasm,  from  the  Greek,  means  literally,  a  tearing  of 
the  flesh. 

SycopJiant  meant  primarily  a  fig-shower;  one  who  in- 
formed the  public  officers  of  Attica  that  the  law  against 
the  exportation  of  figs  had  been  violated.  Hence  the 
word  finally  came  to  mean  a  common  informer,  a  mean 
parasite. 

Salary  is  from  the  Latin,  sal  [salt],  which  in  the  reign 
of  the  Emperior  Agustus,  comprised  the  provisions,  as 
well  as  the  pay,  of  the  Roman  military  officers.  "  He  is 
not  worth  his  salt"  is  a  phrase  that  probably  owes  its 
origin  to  the  etymology  of  this  word,  which  is  now  used 
in  the  sense  of  pay  or  wages. 

Plagiarism  originally  meant  man-stealing.  It  has  now 
a  much  less  restricted  significance,  and  applies  to  books, 
writings,  etc. 

Scrupulous,  from  the  Latin,  formerly  signified  a  small 
sharp  stone ;  and  scruple,  afterward  a  measure  of  weight, 
the  twenty-fourth  part  of  an  ounce.  Hence  to  be  scru- 
pulous is  now  to  pay  minute,  nice,  and  exact  attention. 

Quiz,  if  we  are  to  believe  some  etymologists,  had  its 
origin  in  a  wager  by  the  patentee  of  a  Dublin  theater, 
that  within  twenty-four  hours  he  would  have  spo'ken, 
through  all  the  principal  streets  of  the  city,  a  word 
without  meaning,  and  derived  from  no  known  language. 
He  had  his  supernumeraries  chalk  quiz  on  every  door  and 
shop  window  in  town.  The  next  day  being  Sunday,  the 
attention  of  everybody  was  attracted  to  the  curious  com- 
bination of  letters,  and  the  result  was  the  addition  of  a 
new  word  to  the  language. 

Miser  primarily  meant  miserable ;  clown,  a  tiller  of  the 


192  WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 

ground ;  scoundrel,  a  soldier  who  absconded  at  the  mus- 
ter roll ;  rivals,  dwellers  on  the  banks  of  the  same  rivulet 
or  stream. 

Tribulation,  from  the  Latin,  signifies  a  kind  of  sledge 
or  heavy  roller,  used  as  a  flail. 

Auspicious  formerly  signified  a  bird-inspector,  whom 
the  nations  of  the  old  world  were  wont  to  consult  as 
an  oracle ;  while  fiscal  is  derived  from  fiscus,  or  wicker 
basket,  which,  in  primitive  times,  contained  the  revenue 
of  the  state. 

Frugal  is  strictly  fruit-bearing;  candor  is  whiteness; 
and  serious  is  the  inability  to  create  a  laugh. 

Fanatic,  from  the  Roman  fanaticus,  meant  one  who  was 
ardently  attached  to  \\\cfana,  or  temples.  Vixen  is  from 
fox-en,  meaning  a  she-fox. 

Tabernacle  meant  primarily  a  mere  tent  or  hut ;  fur- 
long, was  once  the  length  of  a  furrow;  and  acre  was  the 
name  of  a  field  of  any  size. 

Calculate  derives  its  meaning  from  the  calculi,  or  peb- 
bles, which  the  ancients  used  in  their  arithmetical  com- 
putations; pamper,  from  the  Italian,  primitively  meant 
bread  and  drink;  and  viands,  from  the  French,  signified 
flesh  or  meat. 

Emolument  meant,  with  the  Romans,  the  tithe  of  the 
grist  which  went  to  the  miller  for  grinding  grain. 

Pecuniary,  peculiar,  and  peculate,  all  derive  their  origin 
fromflecits,  appertaining  to  flocks  or  herds. 

Sardonic  gets  its  meaning  from  a  poisonous  herb  in 
Sardinia,  which  was  supposed  to  cause  those  who  ate  it 
to  die  laughing. 

Mob  is  derived  from  mobile,  meaning  fickle,  variable, 
changeable.  It  was  formerly  written  mobile. 

Slave,  strangely  enough,  derives  its  signification  from 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES.  193 

sclav.  Gibbon  says:  "The  national  appellation  of  the 
Slaves  has  been  degraded  by  chance  or  malice,  from  the 
signification  of  glory  to  that  of  servitude." 

Hypocrite,  taken  from  the  Greek,  originally  implied  a 
stage-player,  an  actor. 

Mausoleum  acquires  its  meaning  from  the  fact  that  the 
widow  of  Mausolus,  a  king  of  Caria,  erected  a  magnifi- 
cent tomb  to  his  memory. 

Philippic,  a  discourse  abounding  in  acrimonious  in- 
vective, finds  its  significance  in  a  series  of  orations 
called  Philippics,  delivered  by  Demosthenes,  in  which  he 
attacked  Philip,  king  of  Macedon. 

MatMe,  the  name  now  applied  to  an  afternoon 
theatrical  performance,  is  derived  from  the  French  matin, 
morning;  and  is  the  literal  term  for  a  morning  enter- 
tainment. 


INDEX. 


195 


INDEX. 


A— An 7,  177 

Abash i 

Abandon 185 

Abate 185 

Abbreviate I 

Abhor 2 

Ability 2 

Able 69 

Abominable 2 

Above 2 

Abridge I 

Absolve 2 

Accent 3 

Accept 69 

Accident 3 

Accord 2 

Accurate 3 

Acknowledge 10 

Acquaintance 31 

Acquit 2 

Acre 192 

Adapt 3 

Address 8 

Adjacent 3 

Adjective 4 

Adjoining 3 

Admire 186 

Adopt 4 

Advise 61 

Affable 4 

After 4 

Aggravate 4 

Ago.... 66 

Air 5 

Alacrity 5 

Alighted 46 

All 5 

Allowance . . , 187 

Allude 6 

Allowed 63 


Allegory 123 

Alliteration 164 

Alone 5 

Almost 49 

Also 6 

Alternative 6 

Amateur 6 

Amiable 186 

Among 7 

And 7 

Anecdote 187 

Animosity 189 

Answer 8 

Anticipate 7 

Antithesis 122 

Apology 186 

Apostrophe 122 

Appear 8 

Appreciate 8 

Apprehend 8 

Applause 57 

Approach 8 

Approve 39 

Apt 8 

Arrangement,  The  Principle  of.  187 

Artillery 187 

Artisan 9 

Artist 9 

As 9 

Assure 9 

Astonished   187 

At 9 

Atone 16 

Attitude 57 

Attribute 59 

Authentic 33 

Avocation 9 

Avow 10 

Awful 10 

Awkward , ,  . . . .     16 


197 


198 


INDEX. 


y 


Balance 10 

Banister 172 

Bankrupt 190 

Barbarism 120 

Base 57 

Bashfulness 49 

Bathos 148 

Beam 61 

Become 1 1,    33 

Eegin 38 

Behavior 16 

Behind 4 

Beside 10 

Besides 10 

Bestow n,    22 

Between 7 

Beyond 2 

Bias ii 

Biddable 172 

Bishop 186 

Blackguard 187 

Blanch 12 

Blue-stocking 190 

Bombast 187 

Booby 191 

Boor 189 

Booty 12 

Bound 12 

Bountiful J 12 

Brace 12 

Brat 189 

Bravery 12 

Brevity,  Excessive 143 

Bring 13 

Brown  Goold 88,  112 

Bullions,  Rev.   Peter 114 

Bulldoze 175 

Buried 174 

Bursted 173 

Bury 13 

But 13 

Caitiff 187 

Calculate 192 

Caligraphy 14 

Campbell,  Dr 126,  154 

Can 14 

Candor 192 

Capacious 14 

Capacity 2 

Caption 14 

Carnival , 14 


Carry,,.  r 4 

Cash 49 

Casualty 3 

Catalogue 46 

Cause 61 

Celebrated 28 

Censure 185 

Chaffer 190 

Character 15 

Chastise 59 

Chastity 15 

Chirography 14 

Choose 25 

Circumstance 15 

Circulate 67 

Civil 15 

Cleave 183 

Clerk 1 86 

Clever 16 

Climax 123,  149 

Clown   191 

Clumsy 16 

Coincide 188 

Commerce 70 

Common 49,  53 

Compensate 16 

Comprehend 8 

Complete 16,  74 

Conclusive 30 

Condign 16 

Condemn 20 

Condone 16 

Conduct 16 

Confess 10,  54 

Confound I 

Confer ii 

Confuse I 

Confute 62 

Conscientious 17 

Consequence 17 

Consider 17 

Constantly 17 

Contemptuous 18 

Contemptible 18 

Contiguous 3 

Continence .' 15 

Continually 17,  56 

Convene 18 

Convenient 18 

Convoke 18 

Copy 37 

Coquette 188 


INDEX. 


199 


Corpse 189 

Corporal 1 8 

Corporeal 18 

Counterfeit 37 

Couple 12 

Courage 12 

Course 6 

Courteous 4 

Crabb,  George 15,  46,  67 

Craft 189 

Crime 19 

Cunning 189 

Curious 19 

Custom 19 

Customer 55 

Deacon 186 

Dear 183 

Debase 20 

Decimate 20 

Defalcate 20 

Default 20 

Demean 20 

Denomination 56 

Deprecate 20 

Despisable > 172 

Description 20 

Detest 2 

Detestable 2 

Detract 21 

Deteriorate 21 

Determined 12 

Dexterity 190 

Diction 120 

Didactic  Poems 166 

Difference 21 

Direct  Structure 157 

Dirt , .  21 

Disapprove 20 

Discover 40 

Discretion 42 

Discriminate 21 

Disremember 172 

Dissembler . 36 

Distinction 21 

Distinguish 21 

Divide 22 

Dock 22 

Doesn't 22 

Donate 22 

Don't 22 

Double  Negative 142 


PAGE 

Dramatic  Poems 165 

Dramatize 3 

Drive 23 

Drunk 23 

Due 23 

Dumb 23 

Dunce 190 

Duty 23 

Each 24 

Earth 21 

Eat 55 

Edify 186 

Either 24 

Elder 24 

Elect 25 

Elicit 25 

Eliminate 25 

Emergency 27 

Emolument 192 

Emphasis 3 

Emphatic  Words 147 

Employ 25 

Empty 25,    34 

Enough 26 

Enthuse 176 

Entire 74 

Envy 41 

Epic  Poems 165 

Epigram 123 

Epithet 4 

Equity 42 

Essential 50 

Establish 40 

Ever 26 

Every , 26 

Evidence 26 

Exact 3 

Example 26 

Excellent 69 

Exceedingly 27 

Excessively , 27 

Except 27 

Exclamation 122 

Execrable 2 

Execute 27 

Exigency 27 

Exorbitant 188 

Expect 7,  27 

Expectation 35 

Extend 28 

Extenuate . .  28 


200 


INDEX. 


Face , 28 

Facetious 189 

Fact 15 

Faint 190 

Famous 28 

Fanatic 192 

Fancy 29 

Farther 29 

Fast 183 

Fellow 190 

Female 29 

Fetch 13 

Fewer 30 

Figurative  Language 162 

Final 30 

Finish 16 

Fire 30 

First 31 

Firstly 31 

Fiscal 192 

Flee 31 

Fly 31 

Folk 172 

Folks 172 

Foreign  Words  and  Phrases. . .  125 

Freedom 31 

Friend , 31 

Front 28 

Frugal 192 

Furlong 192 

Further 29 

Future 22 

Gain 75 

General 32 

Generous 16 

Genteel.. 32 

Gentleness 32 

Genuine 33 

Genius 70 

Get 33 

Girl 187 

Give 2,  22,  28 

Glance 33 

Glimpse 33 

Good 74 

Got 172 

Gotten 172 

Gossip 189 

Gould,  Edward  S 

2,  17,  22,  45,  57,  94,  174 

Graham,  G.  F 72 


PAGE 

Grant 2 

Gratuitous 33 

Great 26 

Grow 39 

Habit 19 

Hall,  Dr.  Fitzedward 114 

Hang 27 

Hanged 34 

Hardly 34 

Haste 34 

Head,  Sir  E.  W 64 

Heading 14 

Healthy 34 

Heat 30 

Him 115 

His 115 

Hollow 34 

Home 35 

Hope 35 

Horrid 186 

How 35,  173 

Humanitarian 35 

Humble 20 

Humor 35,  75 

Hung 34 

Hurry 34 

Hyperbole 122 

Hypocrite 36,  193 

Ice , 36 

Iced 36 

Ideal 36 

If 13 

Ignorant 37 

111 37,  172 

Illiterate 37 

Ill-tempered 71 

Illy 172 

Imagery 122 

Imagination 29 

Imaginary 36 

Imbroglio 37 

Immense 38 

Imitate 37 

Immodest 38 

Importance 17 

Impertinent 186 

In 9,    38 

Inaugurate 38 

Incident 1 5 

Incomprehensible i8& 


INDEX. 


2OI 


Inconceivable 38 

Increase 39,    60 

Incredible 38 

Indecent , 38 

Indexes 39 

Indices 39 

Indifferent 1 86 

Indirect  Structure 157 

Individual 39 

Indorse 39 

Infamous 40 

Inside 40 

Insolence 186 

Insolvent 189 

Instance 26 

Institute 40 

Intensify 185 

Intensive  Expressions 148 

Inter 13 

Interior 40 

Interrogation 1 22 

Into 38 

Intoxicated 23 

Invent 40 

Irony 123 

Irritate 4 

Irving,  Washington 151 

Is  being 114 

Issue 41 

It 103 

Jealousy 41 

Jeopard 41 

Jeopardize 41 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel 66,  137 

Judgment 42 

Justice   42 

Juvenile 76 

Keep 42 

Kill 43 

Kind 20 

Knave ; 189 

Knowledge 43 

Labyrinth 43 

Lady 44 

Large 14,  44 

Lay 46 

Lean 44 

Learn 45 

Learning , . 43 


Leave 45 

Lee 18^ 

Lend 4'6 

Lengthy 45. 

Lenience 45 

Leniency 45 

Lenity 45 

Less 30 

Let 184 

Liable 8 

Liberty 31 

Lie 46,  72 

Lighted 46 

Like 9,  47 

Likewise 6 

Likely 8 

Liquidate 185 

List 46 

Lit 46 

Loan 46 

Locate 47 

Long 45 

Love 47 

Ludicrous 63 

Luxuriant 47 

Luxurious 47 

Lyric  Poems 165 

Macaulay,  Lord,   49,  137,  142,  159 

Make 48 

Male 47 

Man 47 

Manner 5 

Marsh,  Geo.  P I  id. 

Mathews,  Prof.  William 

18,  42,  100,  101,  120,  158,  172 

Matinee 193 

Mausoleum 193 

May 14 

Maze 43 

Me 115 

Meager 44 

Mechanic 9 

Mentioned 50 

Metaphor 121 

Method 69 

Metonymy 122 

Minion 189 

Miscreant 188 

Miser 191 

Mistake   48 

Mistaken 48 


202 


INDEX. 


Mob 192 

Modesty 49 

Money 49 

Mood 35 

Mortal 183 

Most 49 

Mountebank 190 

Murder 43 

Mute 23 

Mutual 49 

My 115 

Myself ,. 176 

Name 51 

Named 50 

Naturalist , 187 

Near 18 

Necessary 50 

Neglect 50 

Negligence 5° 

Neighborhood 50 

Neither 24 

Nervous 183 

Never 26 

New 51 

New  Beginner 181 

Newly  Coined  Words 125 

Nice 177 

Nichol,  Professor  John,  94,  106,  120 

No 51 

Nominate 51 

Nor 51 

Not 51 

Noted 51 

Notorious 51 

Novel 51 

Novice 6 

Number 41,    60 

O— Oh  ! 171 

Obligation 23 

Obscurity 135 

Observance 52 

Observation 52 

Observe 52 

Occasion 52 

Occur 52 


Of 


53 


Officious 189 

Older 24 

Omission 123 

On 72 


Onomatopoeia 123 

Only 5 

Opera 185 

Opportunity 52 

Or 7,  51 

Oral 73 

Ordinary 53 

Ossian 1 58 

Ought 53 

Outsider 184 

Over 53 

Owing 23 

Own 54 

Pair 12 

Pale 54 

Palliate 28 

Pallid ' 54 

Pamper 92 

Paradise 188 

Paramour , 189 

Paralipsis 123 

Parasite 186 

Parenthesis,  Long 152 

Paraphernalia 54 

Partake 55 

Part •. 56 

Partially 55 

Partly ." 55 

Party 55 

Pass 4 

Pastoral  Poems 166 

Patron 55 

Peculate 192 

Peculiar 192 

Pecuniary 192 

Pell-mell 180 

People 55 

Perfect 26 

Perpetually 56 

Persuasion 56 

Person 39,  55,  191 

Persons 55 

Personification 122 

Philippic 193 

Philanthropist 35 

Pier 22 

Piety 62 

Plain  Language 149 

Plagiarism 191 

Plead 56 

Pleaded 56 


INDEX. 


203 


Plentiful  ....................     12 

Pleonasm  ...................  140 

Poe,  Edgar  A  ...........  151,  160 

Polite  ....................  15,     32 

Pope,  Alexander  ....  125,  151,  187 

Portion  ....................     56 

Possessive   Case  .  .  .  .......    .  .     94 

Post....  ................  57,  183 

Posture  ....................     57 

Praise  ......................     57 

Predicate  ...................     57 

Present  .....................     58 

Precedence  of  Clauses  ........  148 

Preserve  ..............  .  .....     42 

Prejudice  ...................     II 

Precise  .....................       3 

Prevail  .....................       4 

Previous  ........  .  ...........     5^ 

Prey  .......................     12 

Previously  ..................     58 

Prevent  ....................   185 

Preventative  ................  172 

Preventive  ..................  172 

Priest  ......................  186 

Promise  ....................       9 

Promptness  .................       5 

Property  ...................     59 

Propose  ....................     58 

Proved  ..........    .  .........     59 

Proven  .....................     59 

Provoke  ....................       4 

Proud  ......................     59 

Puerile  .....................     76 

Punctual  ...................  188 

Punish  .....................     59 

Pupil  ......................     64 

Purpose  ..........  ..........     58 


..  59 

Quantity  ...................  60  - 

Quarrel  .....  ...............  37 

Query  ......................  60 

Question  ....................  60 

Quiz  .......................  191 

Quit  .......................  45 

Quite  ......................  44 

Raise  ....................    .  60 

Raised  .....................  60 

Rascal  .......  ..............  187 

Ray  ........................  61 

Real  ........                           ,.  161 


Reared 60 

Reason 61 

Receive 69 

Reckless 185 

Reciprocal 49 

Recollect 61 

Recommend 6 1 

Reduce , 20 

Refer   6 

Refute 62 

Regalia 54 

Regeneration 189 

Rejoinder 8 

Religion 62 

Relevant 188 

Remarkable 19 

Remainder IO 

Remember 6l 

Rendering 62 

Rendition 62 

Repartee 63 

Reply 8 

Reputation 15 

Response 8 

Reserve 62 

Residence 35 

Restive 62 

Restless 62 

Reticence 62 

Retort 63 

Rhyme 163 

Rhythm 164 

Ride 23 

Ridiculous 63 

Rise 8 

Rivals 192 

Robust 68 

Row 37 

Sacrament 186 

Said .' 63 

Sagacious 187 

Salary 191 

Sarcasm   19 ! 

Sardonic 192 

Satire 166 

Saunterers 190 

Save 42 

Say 52 

Scamp 189 

Scandalous 40 

Scarcely 34- 


204 


INDEX. 


Scholar 64 

Scoundrel 192 

Scrupulous 17,  191 

Sculptor 185 

Sect 56 

Secret 187 

Seen 8 

Separate 22 

Seraph 172 

Seraphim 172 

Set 64 

Settle 47 

Severe 16 

Sewage 175 

Shall 64 

Should 53,  65 

Sick 37 

Signal 66 

Signalize 66 

Silly 189 

Silent 66 

Simile 121 

Simple 189 

Since ,  66 

Sin e 19 

Sit 64 

Slang  Words 124 

Slay 43 

Slave 192 

So 9,  68 

Social 67 

Sociable 67 

Soil 21 

Solecism 120 

Some 67 

Somewhat 67 

Sophist 186 

Sort 20 

Spencer,  Herbert : 

153,  154,  155,  157,  158 

Splitting  of  Particles 147 

Speculation 189 

Spoonfuls 172 

Spoonsful 172 

Spread 67 

Squinting  Construction 134 

Starvation 185 

Stand-point 176 

Station 186 

Staying 67 

Step 173 

Stipulation 190 


Stopping 67 

Strange 19 

Strategic 175 

Strong 68 

Style 120 

Suavity 68 

Subsequent 32 

Subjunctive  Mood 1 1 1 

Such 68 

Sufficient 26 

Suicide 185 

Superior 69 

Suppose 17,    27 

Sweat 173 

Synecdoche 122 

System 69 


Tabernacle 

Taciturn 

Tale 

Take 33, 

Talent 

Tameness 

Tasteful 

Tastefully 

Tastily 

Tasty 

Tautology 

Teach 

Technical  Terms 

Testimony 

Than 

That 13,  35,  101, 

Their 

Them 

Then 

There 

These 

Thief 

Thing 

Think 8, 

Those 

Thought 

To 7, 

Tobacconist 

Total 

Townsend,  Professor  L.  T.  ... 

Transpire 

Trappings 

Trench,  Dean 

Tribulation 

Truth   . 


192 

66 

1 86 

69 

70 

32 

172 

172 

172 

172 

138 

45 

124 

26 

98 

102 

"5 

115 

97 
147 
US 
189 
1 88 

27 

n5 
1 88 
no 
1 88 

74 

114 

52 

54 

29 

192 


INDEX. 


205 


Try 48 

Tyrant 186 

Ugly 71 

Unbelief 71 

Under 53 

Underhanded 174 

Unless 27,  75 

Universe 72 

Universal 32 

Untruth 72 

Unwarranted 33 

Upon 72 

Urbanity 68 

Use 25 

Vacant 25 

Vagabond 189 

Vain 51 

Value   73 

Venal 73 

Veracity 71 

Verbal 73 

Verbosity 140 

Very 10,  49,    61 

Viands 192 

Vice 19 

Vicinity 5° 

Villain 189 

Vision. .  .122 


Vixen 192 

Vocation 9 

Wan 54 

Whately,  Dr 157 

Weak  Endings 148 

Webster,  Noah 29,  98 

Well 74 

Wharf 22 

Which 101 

White,  Richard  Grant,    17,  28,  114 

Whiten 12 

Who 101 

Whole 5,  74 

Whose 94 

Whom 95 

Wholesome 34 

Widow 187 

Will 64 

Win 75 

Wit 75,  188 

With.. 13,  108 

Without 75 

Woman 29,  44 

World 72 

Worth 73 

Would 65 

Youthful 76 


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